Türkiye © 2023 PUBLICATIONS BY PRESIDENCY’S DIRECTORATE OF COMMUNICATIONS Kızılırmak Mahallesi Mevlana Bulv. No:144 Çukurambar Ankara/TÜRKİYE T +90 312 590 20 00 | webinfo@iletisim. gov. tr Prestij Grafik Rek. ve Mat. San. ve Tic. Ltd. Şti. T 0 212 489 40 63, İstanbul Matbaa Sertifika No: 45590 Contact Print 2 nd Edition İstanbul, 2023 TÜRKİYE ISBN:978-625-7377-28-7 Türkiye C O N T E N T S INTRODUCTION 11 PREFACE 13 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 15 History 17 Outline of Turkish History From the Beginning to the Republic 19 History of the Republic 27 Constitution, Polity and Political Structure 39 Constitution 41 Legislative Power 47 Executive Power 51 The Judiciary 59 Social Life 67 Religious and Cultural Life 69 Important Days (Religious and National Holidays) 77 Woman and Society 81 Social Services and Social Assistance 89 Migration and Asylum-Seekers 99 Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organizations 107 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 115 Turkish Foreign Policy and Current Affairs 117 Türkiye's Enterprising and Humanitarian Foreign Policy 119 The Events of 1915 that Formed a Millennium of History 125 Eastern Mediterranean 133 Cyprus 139 Fight against Terrorism 145 July 15 Coup Attempt 149 Defence and Security 157 Humanitarian Aid 167 Development Cooperation 179 Our Citizens Living Abroad and Related Communities 193 Tourism 199 Türkiye: A Country of Tourism 201 Historical Places, Tourism and Culture Routes in Türki ̇ye 205 Türkiye on UNESCO World Heritage List 213 Tourism Types 233 Cultural Life 259 Literature 261 Fine Arts 269 Traditional Arts 277 Architectural Cultural Heritage in Türkiye 281 Music 287 Opera and Ballet 295 Theatre 299 Cinema 305 Turkish TV Series 311 Festivals 315 Fairs 323 Museology 329 Publishing and Libraries 335 Nation’s Library of the Presidency 347 Turkish Cuisine 351 Turkish Culinary Heritage 353 Prominent Delicacies in the Turkish Cuisine 357 Gastronomy Cities of UNESCO Creative Cities Network 363 Studies on the Cultural Heritage of Turkish Cuisine 367 Industry, Science and Technology 371 Globalising Turkish Industry 373 Developments in R&D 381 Sector-Based Industry 393 Developments in Defence Industry 415 Developments in Aviation Technologies 429 Advancements in Space Technologies 437 Developments in the Field of Energy 443 Developments in Communications Sector 449 Economy 455 World Economy and Türkiye 457 Multilateral and Regional Relations 465 Investment Opportunities and Incentives in Türkiye 473 EnvIronment, UrbanIsatIon and ClImate Change 477 International Cooperation in Combating Climate Change and Türkiye's Adaptation Strategies 479 Türkiye’s Combat Against Climate Change 485 Nation's Gardens Project 493 Transition to Zero Waste and Circular Economy Policy in Türkiye 499 Protected Areas and Natural Heritage 507 Türkiye's Urban Transformation Mobilization 519 Social Housing Mobilization in Türkiye: TOKİ and the Construction of One Million Houses 529 Renewable Energy 539 OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 545 Healthcare 547 Community Health Policies 553 Private Healthcare Infrastructure 555 International Evacuation and Aid During the Pandemic 557 Transportation and Important Projects 559 Developments in Transportation 561 A Ground-Breaking Project in World Tunnelling: The Eurasia Tunnel 569 Marmaray Provides Uninterrupted Rail Transport Between the Continents of Asia and Europe 575 Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge and Northern Marmara Highway 579 1915 Çanakkale Bridge and Malkara-Çanakkale Highway 583 İstanbul Airport Project 589 Education 595 Turkish National Education System 596 Educational Institutions of Türkiye Maarif Foundation 605 Higher Education System in Türkiye 613 Education Abroad 619 Mobility of International Students 623 Youth and Sports 627 Youth 629 Public Services for Youth 633 Sports Diplomacy: International Relations and International Organizations 639 Sports Services 643 Achievements in the International Sports Community 651 Employment and Social Policies 671 Individual and Collective Labour Law in Employment 673 Social Partners 683 Social Security System and Its Structure 687 Communication and Media 691 Media 693 State-Nation Communication: CİMER 701 Türkiye Communication Model 707 Contributing Institutions 712 Index 715 T he Republic of Türkiye, which will mark its centennial in 2023, has a long history with 2,000 years of state tradition, 1400 years of civilizational accumulation and 1000 years of existence in its geography. Our civilization and culture, which have risen on the pillars of justice, trust and tolerance, have left traces across a vast geography stretching from Asia to Europe, the Balkans to Africa, and most no- tably, Anatolia. With the understanding of this rich and powerful past, we are working hard to build our country's present and future with firm steps. Particularly in the last 20 years, Türkiye has made significant progress in all areas, from economy to health, justice to education, for- eign policy to fight against terrorism, defence industry to energy, transportation to technol- ogy, and sports to communication. We have also become a central actor in regional and global peace and stability with these break- throughs that guarantee our country's wel- fare, peace, development, democracy and se- curity and bolster our independence. We are advancing our cause of a “great and power- ful Türkiye” along with our ideal that “a fairer world is possible” and setting an example for the world with the “Türkiye models” we imple- ment in fields ranging from humanitarian aid to peace diplomacy. We continue to implement policies that will shield our country and nation from these is- sues at a time when the entire globe is strug- gling with difficulties, from the global pan- demic to the food and energy crisis. With its geopolitical position, robust infrastructure, stable management, qualified human re- sources, and dynamic economy, Türkiye has become a centre of attraction on a regional and global scale, and it will continue to distin- guish itself positively from other countries in all fields, from investment to tourism in the coming period. The distance we have covered together with our nation for a great and powerful Türkiye encourages us to take new steps and work harder. As we always say, we will continue to produce more services and works and create more value for our country, with the motto "Those who run with passion never get tired". INTRODUCTION PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF TÜRKIYE RECEP TAYYİP ERDOĞAN PREFACE T ürkiye, which is rich and powerful in his- torical, cultural, social, humanitarian, ge- ographical, economic, technological, military and many other aspects, is an active actor in ensuring peace, justice and common prosper- ity in the international environment. On the other hand, it is essential to raise awareness and communicate Türkiye's policies, practic- es, and approaches to the global public and counterparts in a planned, continuous, and ef- fective manner. Accordingly, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's "human-oriented perspective," "sense of jus- tice," "effort to win hearts," "principle of not straying from the path of truth," and "vision of moving forward" are the fundamental pillars of Türkiye's Communication Model that the Directorate of Communications implements. We are implementing a comprehensive and inclusive communication strategy at the na- tional and international levels in order to pro- tect and enhance our country's reputation in all areas, from public diplomacy to public re- lations, crisis management to media relations, and the fight against disinformation. In order to strengthen the Türkiye brand, we place special emphasis on the use of our country's name exclusively as "Türkiye" on the international stage. As a result of our initia- tives, international organisations such as the OECD and WTO, especially the United Na- tions, have officially adopted the use of "Tür- kiye," and all our international counterparts have begun to refer to our country as Türkiye. Additionally, global technology companies and media organisations have been included in the initiative to use "Türkiye" as the name of our country in foreign languages. On the oth- er hand, the "Hello Türkiye" campaign, carried out by the Directorate of Communications, has made a global impact. One of the efforts carried out to introduce the name "Türkiye" on international platforms as part of Türkiye's Communication Model is the book "Türkiye". I think that the book Türkiye, which is similar to an encyclopaedia and con- tains comprehensive information about Tür- kiye, will contribute significantly to the brand value of our country. I believe this work will also play an important role in the fight against disinformation to prevent the dissemination of manipulative information about Türkiye. I would like to express my gratitude to every- one who contributed to the creation of this important work, as well as to all of our public institutions and organisations. DIRECTOR OF COMMUNICATIONS PRESIDENCY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TÜRKIYE PROF. FAHRETTIN ALTUN An Outline of Türkiye HISTORY -- -- HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OUTLINE OF TURKISH HISTORY FROM THE BEGINNING TO THE REPUBLIC 18 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Turks and the First Turkic States T he homeland of the Turks in prehistoric times is the steppes between both sides of the Altai Mountains and the Kögmen/ Sayan Mountains and Tengri Tagh (Tian Shan Mountains). During this period, Pre-Turkic com- munities had ties to the Andronovo (bronze and gold working), Karasuk (iron working and four- wheeled wagon) and Pazyryk cultures. The Turks appeared on the historical scene for the first time in the 7th century BC as a result of the merger of the peoples speaking the same language, belong- ing to the Ural-Altaic language group, living in these regions. According to Chinese sources, the Turkic politi- cal presence in Asia began with the Huns in the 3rd century BC. The Huns, who established a great empire during the period of Mete Han (Modu Chanyu), defeated the Mongols and Yuezhi and gained control of the western gates of China and trade routes under their control. Thanks to their regular military and administrative structures, the Huns, who are reported as the progenitors of the Göktürks according to Chinese records, estab- lished themselves in the political history of Cen- tral Asia as a Turkic state with the largest border known in recorded history. By the middle of the 2nd century AD, they were weakened politically and moved south and west due to attacks by the Xianbeis and Juan-Juans from the east. OUTLINE OF TURKISH HISTORY FROM THE BEGINNING TO THE REPUBLIC Orkhon Inscriptions 20 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE After the collapse of the Xiongnu (Asia Hun Em- pire), the Göktürk Empire was established on the eastern foothills of the Altai Mountains in 552. For the first time, the Göktürks adopted the word "Turk" as the official state name. Bilge Qaghan and Kul Ti- gin took their place in history as wise and heroic fig- ures of Turkish statesmanship. Both khans and the great Göktürk statesman Tonyukuk perpetuated their deeds with texts called "Orkhon Inscriptions", which are acknowledged as the first written records of Turkish history. Like the Huns, The Göktürk state was a confederation formed by the merger of tribes. After the Göktürks, another Turkish state, the Uy- ghur Khaganate, was established in their place in 741. However, they were dispersed due to the raid on the capital by the Kyrgyz Turks in the northwest. During both the Göktürks and Uyghurs periods, the centre of the state was Otuken, which is located in the Southern Mongolia region today. The Western Huns, the descendants of the Asian Huns, living in the western part of Central Asia, in the Aral Sea and Turkestan regions, left their home- land under the pressure of the Uars/ Hephthalites (‘White Huns’) and settled in the west of the Volga River. Starting from the rule of Chieftain Balam- ber, the Western Huns began to advance into Eu- rope from the North East. They played a key role at the beginning of the historical "Migration Period," which altered the ethnic makeup of Europe, over- turned the northern Roman provinces, and extend- ed to Spain. In 434, Attila became the Western Hunnic Empire's ruler, which was established as the first Turkic state in Eastern Europe. With Attila's subjugation of all the barbarian tribes in Europe, Byzantium, and Western Rome, the Empire experienced its height of power. The Avars were the second Turkic people that es- tablished their existence and power in Europe. Af- ter the establishment of the Göktürk State, Avars, who turned to the west in 552, first migrated to the Caucasus and the north of the Black Sea; after that, they continued west and established supremacy in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. They advanced on the Byzantine walls and lay siege to Constantinople alongside the Bulgar Turks in 626. The naming of the mountains, which are major geographical ele- ments, with Turkic names like Carpathian and Bal- kan, leaves the most enduring trace of the Turkic presence in Eastern Europe. The Khazars dominated the east of Europe after the Avars. The Khazars established a powerful state in the region stretching from the Volga to Kiev be- tween the 7th and 10th centuries. They were highly tolerant of other religions' followers who lived in the lands they ruled. Their political existence as a state ended in 968. The Caspian Sea was named after the Khazars, who spoke Turkish as the most common language. Beginning from the 10th century, the Turkic pres- ence in Eastern Europe continued with the Pech- enegs and Cumans after the Khazars. Due to in- tense pressure from the Khazar-Oghuz alliance, the Pechenegs reached Hungary by crossing the Volga. They settled in these territories in 880 by driving the local Hungarians from their homeland. Historical Meriç Bridge on the Maritsa River (Meriç River) - EDİRNE AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 21 They suffered a heavy defeat in the brutal battle around the Maritsa River in 1091 against the com- bined Byzantine-Cuman forces. Thus, the polit- ical existence of the Pechenegs came to an end. With the withdrawal of the Pechenegs from the stage of history, the first phase of the political ad- venture of the Turks in Europe, which lasted for 700 years, came to an end. The Turks would no longer appear on the political map of Europe for 200 years. Islamic Period Turkish History After the collapse of the Uyghur State, which was established after the Göktürks in Asia in 840, the Kara-Khanid State was established in the south of Lake Balkhash, centred on Balasagun. Islam was adopted as the official religion during the reign of the Karakhanid ruler Satuq Bughra Khan. Islam had already begun to spread in Central Asia from the 8th century on through conquests and trade routes. During the Karakhanid period, the founda- tions of the historical development called "Turk- ish-Islamic Culture and Civilization" were laid as a result of the adoption of Islam by the Turkic tribes in masses. After 934, Kashgar became the state capital. During the reign of the Karakhanids, a second state called the "Ghaznavids State" was established (969- 1187), the capital of which was the city of Ghazni in Afghanistan. Mahmud of Ghazni, who was the first to use the title of "Sultan", launched many ex- peditions to India, spreading Islam throughout the region. After Sultan Mahmud, the Ghaznavids lost the Battle of Dandanaqan (1040) with the Seljuks and partially fell under Seljuk rule. However, the Turkic presence in the region continued through the Delhi Sultanate and successor principalities established in the 13th century. Seljuk Empire (1040-1157) was founded by Sel- juk, a member of the Qiniq tribe of Oghuz Turks. The Seljuks, who ruled further west than the Kar- akhanids, around Transoxiana, the Middle East and the Caspian Sea, centred their state on cities such as Nishapur, Ray and Isfahan. The Seljuks established Turkic unity by gaining superiority over the previously established Karakhanids and Ghaznavids. Tughril, the Sultan of Seljuks, was bestowed the title of "The Great Sultan" by the ca- liph after he captured Baghdad, the centre of the Abbasid caliphate, in 1055 and ended the Shiite Buwayhid State. Alparslan, his successor, defeated Diogenes in Manzikert in 1071, opening the gates of Anatolia to the Turks. During the reign of Sul- tan Malik-Shah, the Seljuk State saw its most bril- liant period. This period also saw the building of Nezamiyeh Madrasahs, which formed the basis for the architecture of Western universities. Following the death of Malik-Shah, the Seljuk Empire was divided into smaller states such as the Seljuks of Syria (1092-1117), Seljuks of Iraq and Khorasan (1092-1194), the Seljuks of Kerman (1092-1187) and the Seljuks of Türkiye (The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum 1092-1308). In addition, the Kh- warazmian Empire was established on the state's territory (1097-1231). The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, founded by Suleiman Shah ibn Qutalmish and centred in Nicaea, is the most important of these smaller states. The col- lapse of the Byzantine defence line after the Bat- tle of Manzikert allowed the entry of many Turkic tribes living under Seljuk rule into Anatolia. Thus, Anatolia started to become Turkified rapidly. Uni- ty was achieved as a result of the merger of the vassal principalities belonging to the Anatolian branch of the Seljuks. The Crusades, which began in this period, turned Anatolia into a battlefield and paved the way for cultural interaction. The crossing of the Crusaders to Anatolia took place in 1097. In the following period, the Seljuk-Crusad- er conflicts persisted in Anatolia. The Crusaders, who headed for Iconium during the reign of Mesud I, son of the Sultan Kilij Arslan I of Seljuks, were defeated near Ceyhun. 22 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE İhlasiye Madrasa built by the Seljuks - BİTLİS After Mesud I, his son and successor, Kilij Arslan II, defeated the Byzantine army in Myriokephalon near the City of Denizli and completely eliminated the influence of Byzantium in Anatolia. Crusader writers who came to Anatolia during this period began to call Anatolia "Türkiye" (Turkia/Turquia) after the Second Crusade (1147), and the country's name became Türkiye. Despite Crusader and Byz- antine attacks, the Anatolian Seljuk State was at its peak during the reign of Sultan Kayqubad I. However, the ruler's death by poison sparked unrest throughout the country. The Babai revolt (1241) was followed by the Mongol invasion. Af- ter the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243, Anatolia was in- vaded by the Mongols. Towards the end of the 13th century, the Oghuz Turks settled on the borders as a result of the weakening of Mongolian sovereign- ty; they established the beyliks of Karamanids, Alanya Castle, rebuilt during the reign of Kayqubad I Germiyanids, Eshrefids, Hamidids, Alaiye, Rama- danids, Dulkadir, Tadjeddin, Menteshe, Jandarids, Pervane, Sahib Ataids, Karasids, Sarukhanids, Ay- dinids, Inanjids and Ottomans in Anatolian lands. In this period, called "The Beyliks Period", Anato- lia became a completely Turk homeland. On the other hand, the Turkish presence also began to be felt in North Africa. After the death of Ayyubid Ruler Al-Malik as-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub, army commander Izz al-Din Aybak gained control of Egypt and established the Turkish Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517). During Aybak's reign, the Battle of Mansurah was won, rendering the Seventh Crusade ineffective. During Saif ad- Din Qutuz's period, the Mongol-Armenian-Cru- sader allies were severely defeated and were pre- vented from entering Syria. Ottomans put an end to the Mamluk Sultanate's presence (1517). While the branches of the Seljuks in Asia Minor maintained their dominance in Anatolia and the Middle East, the Mongol Invasion had begun in the Khwarazm and Kara-Khanid Khanate in Cen- tral Asia at the beginning of the 13th century. All of Central Asia came under Mongol control with the Genghis Khan invasion. The political unity es- tablished in Central Asia under the rule of Geng- his and his sons did not last long. The Timurid Dynasty were one of the most significant states formed in the Mongol Empire during the 14th cen- tury (1370-1507). Timur, the leader of one of the remaining Chagatai khanates of Mongolia, found- ed this state in the Turkestan region. In just 35 years, Timur transformed his state into an empire whose frontiers extended from the Volga River to the Ganges River, from the Tian Shan to İzmir and Damascus. After his death, the Empire fell apart. Only Husayn Bayqara was able to be present in Khorasan. Herat, the capital, became one of the significant cultural centres in Turkish history. Ali-Shir Navai, a Turkish poet and statesman, was raised here. In the Middle East and Asia Minor, where Oghuz AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 23 tribes had migrated after the fall of the Genghis Empire, regional beyliks emerged. In this regard, the Qaraqoyunlu Turkmen group, consisting of the Yiwa, Yazır, Döğer and Afshar tribes of the Oghuzs, founded the Qaraqoyunlu State between Erbil and Nakhchivan (1380-1469). As a result of Timur's pressure, Qaraqoyunlu Ruler Qara Yusuf was forced to seek refuge under Ottoman Emper- or Bayezid I. This was regarded as the reason for the Battle of Ankara. In 1406, with the conclusion of the battle, he re-established his state and seized Mardin, Erzincan, Baghdad, Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Qazvin, and Soltaniyeh. Following Qara Yusuf's passing, there was unrest in the country. Even though Jahan Shah was successful in uniting the country, he was overthrown at Mardin by Aq Qoyunlu Ruler Uzun Hasan, and the Aq Qoyunlu took power. Aq Qoyunlu Turkmens, who were also members of the Oghuz tribes, founded the Aq Qoyunlu State in the Diyarbakir region (1350-1502). During the reign of Uzun Hasan, the community, whose founder was originally Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg, reached its heyday. However, after Uzun Hasan lost the Battle of Otlukbeli (1473) against Mehmed II, the state's unity was shattered and eventually vanished. Taking advantage of the upheaval in the Aq Qo- yunlu State, Shah Ismail gathered the scattered Turkmens in Iran and formed the Safavid Dynas- ty (1501). When Shah Ismail, who had enlarged his country's borders with a strict Shiism policy, in- tended to expand his rule to Anatolia, he faced the Ottoman Emperor Selim I in Chaldiran and was heavily defeated (1514). After Shah Ismail, every Safavid ruler lost every battle against the Otto- mans. The Safavid Empire was officially dissolved in 1760, with the formation of the Afsharid dynas- ty by Nader Shah. The Ottoman Empire's Borders at its Peak Under the control of the Timurids, significant cit- ies of Turkestan geography in Central Asia, par- ticularly Samarkand, Khiva, Tashkent, Bukhara, and Herat, became the hubs of economic and cultural advancements. Various dynasties formed regional khanates following the dissolution of the Timurid Dynasty. The Khanate of Khiva (1512– 1920), Kokand, and Bukhara Khanates were the most significant of these khanates. Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror) Ali Şir Nevai 24 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE In the southern region of Central Asia, in the ge- ography of India, which has been familiar with Turkish-Islamic culture since the period of the Ghaznavids, Zahir-ud-din Babur from the Timu- rid dynasty, who became famous for his work named "Vekayi (Baburnama)" written in Turk- ish, founded the Mughal Empire (1526). During the reigns of his sons Humayun and Akbar, who succeeded him as rulers following his death, the state's territories were expanded, and the major- ity of the Indian subcontinent was united under a single rule. During the reign of Khurram, who became the ruler under the name of Shah Jahan, the political and artistic fields experienced their most prosperous era. The Taj Mahal, considered the most beautiful architectural structure in the world, was constructed in Agra. Architects from the Ottoman Empire were sent to construct this structure. After Aurangzeb I's death, there was an uprising that lasted until Bahadur Shah II's reign. After putting down a rebellion in 1858, the British an- nexed India to Britain. Ottoman Empire (1299-1923) Osman I, the Seljukian frontiersman, founded the Ottoman State as the representative of the Oghuz tribes residing in the Bursa, Bilecik, and Eskişehir regions. In a short period of time, Osman I united the Turkish beyliks in Western Anatolia and fos- tered peace in the region after receiving the unan- imous vote of the Oghuz beys. Soon, the Ottoman Beylik expanded its frontiers to include Rumelia. During the rule of Orhan Ghazi and Sultan Murad I, the Ottomans dominated a significant part of the Balkans. The capital was shifted from Bursa to Edirne when Edirne was conquered in 1362. Mehmed II's conquest of Istanbul in 1453, which brought an end to Byzantium, ushered the begin- ning of the New Age and the end of the Middle Ages. The Ottomans fought against the Austro-Hun- garian Empire, the Spanish, the Papacy, England, Poland, France, and Russia in Europe, as well as the Aq Qoyunlu, Timurid, Mamluks, Safavid, and Karamanid states in Asia. In the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire's frontiers expanded across three continents, and numerous nations of differ- ent religions and cultures lived together in peace within its borders. Selim I conquered Egypt and transferred the caliphate to the Ottomans, and the state became the sole representative of the Islamic world in the West. During Suleiman the Magnificent's rule, the Em- pire's frontiers encompassed all of North Africa, extending from Crimea in the north to Yemen and Sudan in the south, to the interior of Iran and the Orhan Ghazi Suleiman the Magnificent AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 25 Caspian Sea in the east, to Vienna in the north- west, and to Algeria in the southwest. In the final quarter of the 16th century, the Empire began to lose its economic and military advantage over Europe. Provocations from Russia and a few European countries in the 19th century led to up- risings in the Ottoman Empire. Importantly, Chris- tians influenced by the French Revolution's nation- alist ideology abandoned the Empire and founded independent states. On the other hand, the Otto- man administration's reform efforts during the 19th century were unable to halt the collapse process. The first constitutional period (1876), which cor- responded with Abdulhamid II's reign and pro- vided Türkiye with its first Western constitution, was unable to keep the Ottoman society togeth- er. The constitutional period, which began in the Ottoman Empire with the constitution drafted by intellectuals known as "Young Turks" who urged Abdulhamid II to approve it, came to an end when the Sultan dissolved the parliament using the Rus- so-Turkish War of 1877-1878 as the justification. The Committee of Union and Progress, which was initially the Young Turks' opposition movement, declared the Constitutional Monarchy once more (1908) and took control by putting down the 31st March Incident. The loss of the Italo-Turkish War against the Italians (1911-1912) and the Balkan War (1912-1913) converted the Union and Progress ad- ministration into a one-party dictatorship. The de- velopments in Europe foreshadowed the upcom- ing war. The First World War (1914–1918), which altered the course of history by pitting nation states against empires, paved the way for the fall of the Empire. France, Italy, England, and Greece occupied Ottoman lands until the Turkish War of Independence after the Armistice of Mudros was signed. Ottoman Culture and Civilization In addition to leaving a magnificent cultural and civilizational legacy, the Ottoman Empire also made significant contributions to the history of civilization by preserving the culture, art, and science of all Turkish and non-Turkish nations before it. It produced valuable works in the fields of architecture, stone and wood carving, the art of tile-making, ornamentation, miniature, cal- ligraphy and bookbinding. The Empire, which had been prominent in international politics for centuries, treated its citizens of various religions, languages, and nations in wide geography with fairness and tolerance. By granting freedom of re- ligion and conscience, it allowed the nations with- in its borders to maintain their own language and culture. Abdulhamid II Wood Carving Art 26 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE War of Independence Period Beginning in the summer of 1914 and profound- ly affecting numerous states and societies, World War I started rapidly developing in favour of the Entente Powers in the fall of 1918. The Armistice Treaty of Mudros (Mondros Ateşkes Antlaşması), which included very harsh conditions, was signed on October 30, 1918, between the defeated Otto- man Empire and the Entente Powers. Despite the signing of a ceasefire between the two parties, the military operations of the Entente Powers contin- ued, and certain regions of Turkish territory were occupied. Civil organisations were established in HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC 28 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Anatolia since the Ottoman government could not respond adequately to the invasions. Nationalist Forces (Kuva-yi Milliye) comprised the military wing of these civil organisations, while Associa- tions for Defence of National Rights (Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyetleri) comprised the political wing. Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who was appointed to the Lightning Armies Group Command (Yıldırım Or- duları Grup Komutanlığı) on the date of the sign- ing of the ceasefire, arrived in Istanbul from Ada- na on November 13, 1918, after the abolition of this army. When he looked at the strait from the door of Haydarpaşa Station that day, he had the worst days of his life. Because the occupation ships, which they had previously defeated at Çanakkale, were anchored in the strait and Istanbul was oc- cupied. Mustafa Kemal, an officer who had successful- ly served in the deserts of Libya, the Çanakkale Front and the Caucasus and proved his adequacy, was appointed as the 9th Army Troops Inspector to resolve the events that erupted when the Greek population began persecuting the Muslim popu- lation in the Eastern Black Sea Region and depart- ed for Samsun. Mustafa Kemal, who arrived in Samsun on May 19, 1919, at a time when İzmir was also occupied by Greece, issued the Havza Circular to urge the people to protest the invasions. With the issu- ance of the Amasya Circular on June 22, 1919, he urged civilian and military leaders to resist the in- vasions. The Erzurum Congress, which was con- vened on July 23, 1919, made national decisions, emphasised complete independence, and made it clear that remaining under the guidance of foreign states would not be acceptable, although partici- pation was primarily limited to the eastern prov- inces. The Sivas Congress, convened on Septem- ber 4, 1919, united the organisations opposing the invasion under the umbrella of the Association for the Defence of Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia, and the Committee of Representation (Temsil Ku- rulu) was established to manage the process until the establishment of the Grand National Assem- bly of Türkiye (GNAT). The Grand National Assembly of Türkiye was es- tablished in Ankara on April 23, 1920, when the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire (Os- manlı Mebusan Meclisi) was dissolved by the En- tente Powers due to the acceptance of the National Pact (Misak-ı Milli), which advocated the indivis- ible integrity of the nation. On August 10, 1920, the government of Istanbul signed the Treaty of Sevres (Sevr Antlaşması), which disregarded the National Pact. Armed with the courage provided by the Treaty of Sevres, the Armenians occupied Oltu and began massacring Muslims in Eastern Anatolia. Turkish troops counterattacked, de- feated the Armenian invaders and repelled them outside the borders of the National Pact. After the victory, the Treaty of Gyumri (Armenian name: Treaty of Alexandropol; Turkish name: Gümrü Antlaşması), signed with the Armenians on De- cember 2-3, 1920, was the first political treaty of the GNAT. The British, who initially occupied Adana, Antep, Maraş, and Urfa, did not face armed resistance because they did not interfere with the Turkish administration in the region and did not violate the people's sacred values and honour. Howev- er, the acquisition of control of the region by the On August 26, 1922, the Great Offensive was launched and Anatolian lands were liberated from Greek occupation. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 29 French, which sought to establish a colonial em- pire in the Eastern Mediterranean, from the Brit- ish, in addition to occupying Syria, sparked con- flict. In particular, the attempted massacres by the French, along with the Armenian soldiers dressed in French uniforms that they brought with them, prompted the residents of this region to take de- fensive measures and form an organisation known as the Association for the Defence of the Rights of Cilicia (Kilikyalılar Cemiyeti) to protest the inci- dent. The conflict in this area, which was occu- pied by the French, was particularly concentrated in Adana, Antep, Maraş and Urfa. The struggle on these fronts lasted until the Treaty of Ankara of October 20, 1921, which documented the victory of the national struggle in the southeast between the Nationalist Forces and the French occupation forces in Adana. This conflict between the GNAT and the Greek Army, supported by Western states, began on the Aegean coasts and moved into Anatolia. De- spite being halted in the First and Second Battle of İnonü, the Greeks invaded Afyon, Kütahya, and Eskişehir and pushed to Polatlı. The Greek force in fronts of Polatlı was defeated at the Battle of Sakarya. The Anatolian lands were saved from the Greek occupation with the Great Offensive launched on August 26, 1922. Founding of the Republic The glorious victory of the Turkish nation was crowned by the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923. Having regained their independence through the national struggle, the Turkish people institu- tionalised their national will through the Repub- lic. The first President of the Republic of Türkiye is Gazi Mustafa Kemal. The young Republic of Tür- kiye launched an ambitious development initia- tive to reach the level of modern civilisations. The Republic was proclaimed, university reform was implemented, factories were established through- out the country, technology and production zones and employment opportunities were established in Anatolia, the legal system was modernised, 30 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE and the first steps were taken towards construct- ing a new, modern, and progressive society. The abolition of the Caliphate, the abolition of the sultanate, the Unification of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat), the Alphabet Reform, the closure of the dervish lodges and zawiyahs, the adoption of the civil law, the women's suffrage are the first and important steps in the establishment of the early period of the Republic. On the basis of the "Peace at Home, Peace in the World" principle, the Bal- kan Pact and the Saadabad Pact were established, along with peaceful and strong relations with the Balkan and Middle Eastern countries. One day after the founder and first President of the Republic of Türkiye, Gazi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, passed away in 1938, İsmet İnönü was elected as the second President of the Republic of Türkiye. İnönü's Presidency period witnessed radical changes in Turkish political life. İsmet İn- önü's presidential candidacy was determined by the free will of the deputies, and he was elected unanimously. In addition to being elected as the chairman of the party in the Extraordinary Con- gress, which was convened to elect the party lead- er on December 26, İnönü was given the title of National Chief. Accordingly, with the amendment made in Article 3 of the party charter, Atatürk was declared Eternal Chief, and İnönü was declared National Chief and Permanent Chairman. One of the significant developments of the İnonü period was the establishment of village insti- tutes to improve the education level of the people and modernise the villages. Another event that marked the İnönü period was the Second World War, which engulfed the world. Despite the fact that Türkiye was able to avoid involvement in the war through deft diplomatic and political ma- noeuvring, these issues, which were exacerbated by the global shortage and instability brought about by the war, led to opposition against the Re- publican People's Party (CHP) government. With- in the CHP, the criticism and negative votes of individuals such as Celal Bayar, Adnan Menderes, Refik Koraltan, Fuat Köprülü, and Hikmet Bayur regarding the implemented economic policies be- came increasingly common. Transition to the Multi-Party Period Until 1946, Türkiye was ruled by a single party. There was a single-party entity in Türkiye, but there was no single-party ideology or doctrine. The developments of the 1940s led Türkiye to a multi-party political period. The negative attitude of the CHP administration against the quartet within the CHP and the opposition caused by the proposal of the Law of Providing Land to Farm- ers within the CHP led to the establishment of the Democrat Party (DP). With the elections held on May 14, 1950, the Dem- ocrat Party came to power. This election was sig- nificant because it marked the first time in history that the Turkish people changed the government through their votes. The Democrat Party era, which marked Türkiye's political life between 1950 and 1960, consisted of several phases character- ised by varying policies. First, there was a period of liberalisation that lasted until 1954. This period, which impacted political and social life, necessi- tated new regulations. In actuality, the Democrat Party, which had begun working as a proponent and practitioner of a liberal political and social or- AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 31 der in 1950, adopted a strict and repressive stance starting from 1954 under the influence of fierce opposition. On the other hand, opposition parties decided to unite. In the general elections held on October 27, 1957, the administration of the Dem- ocrat Party, which had blocked this initiative and moved the elections up a year, was defeated for the first time by the opposition's total vote. This third and final period of Democrat Party rule was marked by relations with the opposition reaching a breaking point and spilling into the streets. In this new era that started in 1950, Türki- ye could not eliminate the previous problems in its period of democracy. The government could not maintain its relations with the opposition within the framework of democratic principles, except for foreign policy issues and the struggle and co- operation against extreme incidents. The opposi- tion attempted to resist the control that the gov- ernment wished to establish with the Homeland Front (Vatan Cephesi) and Committee of Inquest (Tahkikat Komisyonu) by getting the support of all segments that were dissatisfied with the course of events for various reasons. In this environment, on the morning of May 27, 1960, young officers be- longing to the Turkish Armed Forces established a group called the National Unity Committee (MBK) and announced that they had seized the government with a declaration on the radio. On January 6, 1961, the Constituent Assembly con- vened, which aimed to draft a new constitution and began its work. Thus, the legislative authority passed from the National Unity Committee to the Constituent Assembly. The Constituent Assembly consisted of the National Unity Committee and the House of Representatives. In terms of drafting the constitution and electoral laws, the House of Representatives was granted broad authority. The House of Representatives was an elected assem- bly based on a popular vote, and it was a parlia- ment whose quality of representation was kept broad within the constraints of the time. Elections for the Turkish Parliament and Senate were held on October 15, 1961, and after a 17-month transitional period, Türkiye resumed multi-party democratic rule. CHP, which had 173 deputies, and the Justice Party (Adalet Partisi/AP), which had 158 deputies, received the most votes in the election. In line with these results, the CHP-AP coalition government was established. The gov- ernment was short-lived due to disagreements between the CHP and the AP, after which the CHP established a minority government. In the 1965 elections, the Justice Party won 240 seats and assumed sole power. CHP won 134 seats. The election results presented another novelty to Turkish democracy, and for the first time, a so- cialist party (Workers' Party of Türkiye/TİP) won 15 seats. In line with these results, AP Chairman Süleyman Demirel established the government alone, and a stable period began. The Justice Par- ty also won the elections of 1969 and maintained its position of power. During this time, several CHP deputies formed the Reliance Party (Güven Partisi/GP), and Necmettin Erbakan, who left the AP, formed the National Order Party (Milli Nizam Partisi/MNP). Devaluations, economic difficul- ties, and the rise of student movements after 1968 harmed the stability of the country and precipitat- ed numerous crises. The government's inability to respond effectively to violent incidents, which sometimes resulted in major conflicts, dragged the country into political, social, and economic chaos. While the global oil crisis was weighing on Türkiye's economy, polit- ical polarisation and conflicts became detrimen- tal to national security and public order. Again, during this period, Article 44 of the Constitution was amended to strengthen the government and prevent the abuse of rights and liberties. The au- tonomy of radios, televisions, and universities was restricted in some way. To prosecute those involved in political violence, State Security Courts were es- tablished. Some political parties were shut down. 32 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Following the 1973 elections, the CHP took the lead with 185 deputies. The AP had 149, DP 45, MSP 48, and CGP 13 deputies. Ecevit took office on January 25, 1974, when he formed a coalition gov- ernment with the National Salvation Party (MSP). However, the new government was soon shaken by internal and external disagreements. Such dis- agreements in domestic and foreign politics paved the way for the CHP-MSP coalition's demise. As a result, the new government could not be formed for more than 200 days, and thus a power vacu- um emerged. Contingent Senator Sadi Irmak, ap- pointed by President Korutürk, served as Prime Minister during this transition period. Finally, on April 12, 1975, the First Nationalist Front (MC) government, which included AP, MSP, CGP, MHP, and independents, was formed under the chair- manship of Demirel. During the MC government, which lasted until the June 5, 1977 elections, on the one hand, Cyprus-related foreign policy issues were addressed, while on the other, attempts were made to prevent the spread of terrorism and an- archy. Despite having 213 deputies following the 1977 elections, the CHP attempted to establish a minority government but was unsuccessful. The Second Nationalist Front government assumed centre stage and ruled the country until January 1978. The government was overthrown, however, as a result of a no-confidence vote, for reasons such as the inability to ensure internal and exter- nal security, the failure to establish national uni- ty, and the forcible imposition of constitutional boundaries. Later, the third Ecevit government was formed with the support of the CGP and the DP. However, when it became clear that this gov- ernment would be unable to find a solution to the growing terrorism and anarchy, Ecevit's govern- ment was forced to resign as a result of a heavy defeat in by-elections on October 14, 1979. Follow- ing that, a new Demirel government was formed, and while a series of economic measures known as the January 24 decisions were implemented, no progress could be made in the election of the President or the prevention of terrorism. The Turkish Armed Forces seized power and es- tablished the National Security Council Regime on September 12, 1980. On September 18, 1980, the members of the Council took the oath in the GNAT building on the sixth day of the intervention, with a text that included the promise of a new consti- tutional order based on the nation's uncondition- al sovereignty and the principles of a democratic and secular republic. An Advisory Council was formed to draft a new constitution to replace the 1961 Constitution, which had been repealed by the intervention on September 12. The National Security Council ap- proved the Advisory Council's draft Constitution, which was then put to a public vote. The new con- stitution was approved by 93 per cent of voters in a referendum held in 1982. With the same popular vote, Kenan Evren was elected President. Bülent Ulusu, a former Naval Forces Commander, was tasked with forming the government. While the new government, mostly made up of ex-soldiers, academics, and technocrats, was implementing the January 24 decisions made by the AP gov- ernment in the economy, there was a noticeable decrease in anarchy and terrorism incidents. On October 16, 1981, the administration, which took drastic political measures, closed all political par- ties and transferred their assets to the treasury. On April 24, 1983, the Political Parties Act went into effect, and parties began to be re-established. In fact, the National Security Council (MGK) ad- ministration ended after about three years with the general elections on November 6, 1983. The Motherland Party (ANAP) was the most suc- cessful in the elections, with 211 deputies. Turgut Özal's government took office on December 13, 1983, and remained in power until 1991. ANAP came to power with a modern/conservative discourse that included liberal economic policy, a free market economy, enterprise freedom, aban- donment of statism, giving local governments AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 33 initiative, and reducing bureaucracy. In terms of applications between 1984 and 1991, a free market economy, export-oriented growth, and the aban- donment of statism were followed by a strong lo- cal government autonomy policy until 1989, and then by a weak one. Turgut Özal was elected President by the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye in November 1989, when President Kenan Evren's term expired. However, in the 1991 general elections, ANAP was defeated, and the True Path Party (DYP), led by Süleyman Demirel, emerged victorious. Follow- ing that, the DYP-Social Democrat Populist Party (SHP) coalition was formed under Demirel's Prime Ministry. Although relations between the govern- ment and the President were generally strained during this time, the basic policies of democrati- sation and economic liberalisation that Özal had initiated before continued to be developed. Following President Özal's death on April 17, 1993, Prime Minister Demirel was elected President by the GNAT. Tansu Çiller was appointed Prime Minister. Following this development, Erdal İn- önü handed over his duty as the SHP leader and the position of Deputy Prime Minister to Murat Karayalçın, the Mayor of Ankara at the time. The new coalition was known as the Çiller-Karay- alçın government. This government ended when Karayalçın stepped down as leader of the SHP as the SHP and CHP merged. During the two parties' merger process, moderate leader Hikmet Çetin was appointed as the leader of the CHP and thus Deputy Prime Minister. The Çiller-Çetin Cabi- net came to an end on September 9, 1995, when Deniz Baykal was elected leader of the CHP in an ordinary congress. Çiller was appointed to form the new government once more. After Çiller's mi- nority government failed to receive a vote of con- fidence from the GNAT, an election government was formed until the early general elections in December 1995. In the 1995 elections, none of the parties received enough votes to come to power on their own. The Welfare Party (RP), led by Necmetin Erbakan, won the elections for the first time, receiving 21 per cent of the total votes cast. Erbakan gained significant power and authority following the 1994 local elections. However, after Erbakan was unable to form a government, a new government was formed based on a rotating prime ministry principle by ANAP and DYP. When this govern- ment was unable to function, the RP-DYP Coali- tion government was formed, with Erbakan as Prime Minister. Mesut Yılmaz formed a tripartite coalition government with the Motherland Party, the Democratic Left Party (DSP), and the Demo- crat Türkiye Party (DTP) after this government resigned in response to National Security Council decisions on February 28, 1997. Türkiye and Structural Transformations in 2000s In such an environment, none of the parties achieved a majority in the general elections held on April 18, 1999. Under Ecevit's leadership, a tri- partite coalition government of the DSP, MHP, and ANAP was formed. When President Demirel's term expired in May 2000, the Parliament elected the President of the Constitutional Court, Ahmet Necdet Sezer, to succeed him. Despite fundamen- tal differences, the trio ruled the country until the Turgut Özal 34 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE early general elections held on November 3, 2002. All of the ruling parties remained outside of the Parliament during these elections. With 177 dep- uties, the CHP became the main opposition party to the Justice and Development Party (AK Party), which came to power with 361 deputies. For the first time in a long time, only two political parties were able to obtain a majority in Parliament. The presidential elections, which were called after Ahmet Necdet Sezer's term expired in 2007, trig- gered a new political crisis in Türkiye. With the publication of a statement called the e-memoran- dum on the General Staff's official website on April 24, 2007, the crisis escalated into political tension, and the Parliament decided on early elections. The Justice and Development Party received ap- proximately 47 per cent of the votes in the early general elections held on July 12, 2007, and once again came to power alone. After the voting on Au- gust 28, 2007, the GNAT elected Abdullah Gül as President. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, who was elect- ed as an Istanbul deputy, was re-appointed Prime Minister and formed the government on August 29, 2007. Relations with the European Union and constitutional arrangements within this frame- work remained on the agenda during the second term of the Justice and Development Party's rule. With the constitutional amendments enacted as a result of the September 12, 2010 referendum, judi- cial proceedings were opened to the administra- tors of the military intervention period, and sig- nificant changes were made to the structure of the high judiciary. The Justice and Development Par- ty regained power in the general elections held on June 12, 2012, with nearly 50 per cent of the vote. The Justice and Development Party, the Repub- lican People's Party, the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), and the Peace and Democracy Par- ty (BDP) were elected; the latter took part in the elections with independent candidates, formed a group in the 24th-term of the GNAT, which con- vened after the elections. As a result of the 2014 presidential elections, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was elect- ed President. Despite receiving over 40 per cent of the vote and 258 seats in Parliament in the general election of June 7, 2015, the AK Party was unable to form a government. The AK Party won 317 seats in the general election on November 1, 2015, with approximately 50 per cent of the vote, and formed the government on its own. On July 15, 2016, members of a terrorist organisa- tion attempted to overthrow the democratically elected government by challenging the will of the people. This coup attempt was thwarted thanks to the government's determination and the people's strong support for democracy. The constitution- al amendment was passed with a referendum in 2017, and the Presidential System of Government was initiated. In the 2018 general elections, the AK Party won 42 per cent of the votes and 299 seats and thus came to power alone, and President Re- cep Tayyip Erdoğan was re-elected by our people as President. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 35 36 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE M. Kemal ATATÜRK Term of Office Oct. 29, 1923 - Nov. 10, 1938 Celal BAYAR Term of Office May 22, 1950 - May 27, 1960 Cevdet SUNAY Term of Office March 28, 1966 - March 28, 1973 İsmet İNÖNÜ Term of Office November 11, 1938 - May 22, 1950 Cemal GÜRSEL Term of Office May 27, 1960 - March 28, 1966 Fahri KORUTÜRK Term of Office: April 6, 1973 - April 6, 1980 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 37 Kenan EVREN Term of Office Nov. 9, 1982 - Nov. 9, 1989 Süleyman DEMİREL Term of Office May 16, 1993 - May 16, 2000 Abdullah GÜL Term of Office August 28, 2007 - August 28, 2014 Turgut ÖZAL Term of Office Nov. 9, 1989 - April 17, 1993 A. Necdet SEZER Term of Office May 16, 2000 - August 28, 2007 Recep Tayyip ERDOĞAN Term of Office August 28, 2014 - 38 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE CONSTITUTION, POLITY AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE - CONSTITUTION - LEGISLATIVE POWER - EXECUTIVE POWER - THE JUDICIARY I n the Ottoman Empire, the constitutional re- form efforts that began with the Charter of Al- liance (Sened-i İttifak) in 1808 were followed by the Edict of Gülhane (Tanzimat Fermanı) in 1839 and the Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856 (Isla- hat Fermanı). These efforts laid the groundwork for the proclamation of the first Ottoman Consti- tution (Kanun-u Esasi), which came into force on December 23, 1876, with the edict of Sultan Abdül- hamit II. Following these developments, the first constitution of the new Turkish State, the 1921 Constitution, dated January 20, 1921, entered into force with the principle of national sovereignty, stating that sovereignty is vested fully and uncon- ditionally in the nation. With the constitutional amendments dated October 29, 1923, Türkiye's form of government was determined as a "Repub- lic". The first Constitution of the Republic was the 1924 Constitution. In the 1924 Constitution, the principle of national sovereignty was accepted as the fundamental principle, freedoms were list- ed, and it was stated that the extent of freedoms could only be restricted by law. In the 1961 Consti- tution, which was adopted later, it was stated that with the principle of national sovereignty, the sov- ereignty would be exercised through authorised organs as prescribed by the principles set forth in the Constitution, and the principle of separation of powers was adopted. A bicameral parliament, consisting of the National Assembly and the Sen- ate of the Republic, was envisaged. In addition, the Constitutional Court was established to over- see the compliance of laws with the Constitution. The referendum on November 7, 1982, resulted in the adoption of the Constitution of 1982, which is still in effect today. Article 6 of the Constitu- tion states that sovereignty is vested fully and unconditionally in the nation. According to the Constitution, the nation exercises its sovereignty through authorised organs as prescribed by the principles set forth in the Constitution. In arti- cle 7 of the Constitution, the legislative power is given to the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye (GNAT), in article 8, the executive power and duty are given to the President, and in article 9, the ju- dicial power is given to the independent and im- partial courts. Fundamentals of State Order and Fundamen- tal Rights and Freedoms According to Article 2 of the Constitution, "The Republic of Türkiye is a democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, within the notions of the public peace, national solidarity and justice, respecting human rights, loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk, and based on the funda- mental tenets set forth in the preamble". CONSTITUTION 42 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE The Constitution of the Republic of Türkiye guar- antees everyone's right to live in dignity in the na- tional culture, civilisation and legal order and to develop their material and spiritual existence by making use of the fundamental rights and free- doms recognised in the Constitution, in accordance with the principles of equality and social justice. Fundamental rights and duties are explained in the second part of the Constitution of the Re- public of Türkiye, and according to article 13 ti- tled "Restriction of fundamental rights and free- doms", "Fundamental rights and freedoms may be restricted only by law and in conformity with the reasons mentioned in the relevant articles of the Constitution without infringing upon their essence. These restrictions shall not be contrary to the letter and spirit of the Constitution and the requirements of the democratic order of the soci- ety and the secular republic and the principle of proportionality." Provisions on the restriction of fundamental rights and freedoms are regulated by consider- ing universal norms. The Constitution stipulates that none of the rights and freedoms embodied in the Constitution can be exercised in the form of activities aiming to violate the indivisible integ- rity of the State with its territory and nation and to endanger the existence of the democratic and secular order of the Republic based on human rights. Fundamental rights and freedoms are also protected against illegal interference by the State. The provisions of the Constitution note that pro- visions of the Constitution cannot be interpreted in a manner as to make it possible to engage in an activity aimed at the destruction of fundamental rights and freedoms recognised by the Consti- tution or their restriction more extensively than stated in the Constitution. The sanctions to be ap- plied to those who act in violation of these provi- sions are regulated by law. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 43 According to the Constitution, everyone is equal before the law. No discrimination can be made between people due to language, race, colour, sex, political opinion, philosophical belief, religion and sect, or any such grounds. No privilege can be granted to any individual, family, group or class. Fundamental rights and freedoms for foreigners are regulated by law in accordance with interna- tional law. Women and men have equal rights. The State has an obligation to ensure that this equal- ity exists in practice. In addition, it has been de- creed that the measures to be taken for children, the elderly, disabled people, widows and orphans of martyrs, as well as for the invalid and veterans, cannot be considered a violation of the principle of equality, and no privileges can be granted to any person, family, group or class. The Constitu- tion allows the arrangements to be made in line with the principle of positive discrimination. The Republic of Türkiye has also adopted the model of international supervision of human rights. Amending the Constitution • The articles in the Constitution of the Repub- lic of Türkiye that cannot be amended, nor can their amendment be proposed, are listed below: • The State of Türkiye is a Republic. • The Republic of Türkiye is a democratic, sec- ular and social state governed by rule of law, within the notions of public peace, nation- al solidarity and justice, respecting human rights, loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk, and based on the fundamental tenets set forth in the preamble. • The State of Türkiye, with its territory and na- tion, is an indivisible entity. • Its language is Turkish. • Its flag, the form of which is prescribed by the relevant law, is composed of a white crescent and star on a red background. • Its national anthem is the "Independence March". • Its capital is Ankara. Articles of the Constitution other than these can be amended upon the written proposal of at least one-third (200) of the total number of members of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye, and with the secret vote of at least three-fifths (360) of the members, after being debated twice in the Plenary. The President may send back the laws on the amendments to the Constitution to the GNAT for reconsideration. If the Assembly readopts, by a two-thirds majority of the total number of mem- bers, the law sent back without any amendment, the President of the Republic may submit the law to referendum. If a law on the amendment to the Constitution is adopted by a three-fifths (360) or less than two- thirds (400) majority of the total number of mem- bers of the Assembly and is not sent back by the President of the Republic to the Assembly, it is published in the Official Gazette to be submitted to referendum. "According to the Constitution, everyone is equal before the law." 44 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE A law on the Constitutional amendment adopted by a two-thirds (400) majority of the total number of members of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye directly or upon the sending back of the law by the President of the Republic or its articles deemed necessary may be submitted to a referen- dum by the President of the Republic. A law on the amendment to the Constitution or the related articles not submitted to the referendum is prom- ulgated in the Official Gazette. Entry into force of the laws on the amendment to the Constitution submitted to referendum shall require the affirmative vote of more than half of the valid votes cast. The Constitution has been amended 19 times since its adoption in 1982. Most of the changes made are of a nature that guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms and improves the democratic structure. With the amendment made in 2017, the government system was changed, and the Parlia- mentary Government System was transformed into the Presidential System of Government. On October 3, 2001, the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye amended the preamble and 32 articles of the Constitution, most of which are related to fundamental rights and freedoms. In accordance with the principles of the European Convention on Human Rights, in these amendments, arrange- ments were made such as; • Freedom of association, freedom of commu- nication, freedom of assembly and demon- stration, the provision that no one can be de- prived of his/her liberty merely on the ground of inability to fulfil a contractual obligation, • Making it difficult to ban political parties, • Exercise of trade union freedoms, • Granting the right of petition to foreigners on the condition of reciprocity, • Increasing the number of civilian members of the National Security Council and redefining its function. With the amendment, it has also been recognised that there is no obstacle for citizens to use different languages, dialects and vernacular in their daily lives, the limits of freedom of belief, thought, and expression have been expanded, and the duration of the arrest and detention of persons before ap- pearing before the judiciary has been shortened. With the constitutional amendment made on De- cember 27, 2002, the phrase "ideological and an- archic acts" in the second paragraph of Article 76 regarding the eligibility to be elected as an MP was changed to "acts of terrorism". With the amendment made on May 7, 2004, the State Security Courts, and the death penal- ty, which had never been carried out since 1984, were abolished. In order to secure the freedom of the press, it has been decreed that the means of press and media cannot be seized, and they can- not be kept from operating. It is decreed that the provisions of international agreements should be taken as a basis in disputes that may arise in cas- es of international agreements on fundamental rights and freedoms, and laws that have been duly put into effect contain different provisions on the same subject. It is stipulated that Turkish citizens cannot be extradited to a foreign country except under obligations resulting from being a party to the International Criminal Court. With the amendment accepted as a result of the referendum held on October 21, 2007, it was reg- ulated that; • The elections for the GNAT are to be held every four years, • The GNAT to convene with at least one-third of the total number of members for all its af- fairs, including elections it holds, AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 45 • The President is to be elected directly by the public from among Turkish citizens over forty years of age who are eligible to be an MP and have completed higher education, with the written proposal of the members of the GNAT or 20 MPs, the term of office of the presidency to be five years, and a person may be elected as the president of the Republic for two terms at most. With the amendment made in the Constitution on September 12, 2010; • Positive discrimination has been introduced for some disadvantaged groups. • Protection of personal data has been secured. • It is stipulated that the freedom of citizens to go abroad can be restricted only upon a judge's decision due to criminal investigation or prosecution. • Civil servants and other public officials were granted the right to collective bargaining. • The Institution of the Ombudsperson was established under the GNAT to examine com- plaints about the functioning of the adminis- tration, and citizens and foreigners residing in Türkiye, with the condition of observing the principle of reciprocity, were granted the right to apply. • The Constitutional Court was organised to work in two sections and a plenary session, and the number of its members was increased to 17. The right of "individual application" to the Constitutional Court was introduced. • It was stipulated that the Speaker of the GNAT, the Chief of General Staff, the Com- manders-in-chief of Armed Forces and the Commander of the Gendarmerie Forces could also be tried by the Supreme Criminal Tribu- nal for offences related to their duties. • The number of original members of the High Council of Judges and Prosecutors (HSYK) was increased from 7 to 22, and the number of substitute members from 5 to 12. Other amendments made are aimed at improving social life. With the amendment made in the Constitution on March 17, 2011, it was stipulated that the decisions of sports federations regarding the management and discipline of sports activities can only be ap- pealed to compulsory arbitration and that the de- cisions of the arbitration board are final and can- not be appealed to any judicial authority. With the amendment made in the Constitution on January 21, 2017; • The Parliamentary Government System was replaced by the Presidential System of Gov- ernment. • Executive power has been vested in the Presi- dent of the Republic. • The presidential nomination process has been opened to the public. One hundred thou- sand voters will be able to propose a presiden- tial candidate. • The Prime Ministry and the Council of Minis- ters has been abolished. An MP appointed as a minister will cease to be an MP. • The power to propose a bill of law has been granted only to MPs. • The President of the Republic will not be able to make bills other than a bill of laws on budget and final account. • The legislature and the executive have been given the power of mutual dissolution. Wheth- er the decision to renew the elections is taken by the President of the Republic or the Assem- bly, both decisions will be valid for both the 46 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE legislature and the President of the Republic, and the duties of both will end together. • The President of the Republic is authorised to issue presidential decrees on the procedures and principles regarding the appointment of senior public administrators, the function- ing of the State Supervisory Council (DDK), the term of office of its members and oth- er personnel matters, on the establishment and abolition of ministries, their duties and powers, their organisational structure and the establishment of central and provincial organisations, on the organisation and du- ties of the Secretariat General of the National Security Council, on the power to establish and execute public legal entities. However, no residential decree may be issued on the fun- damental rights, individual rights and duties included in the first and second chapters, the political rights and duties listed in the fourth chapter of the second part of the Constitution, matters which are stipulated in the Consti- tution to be regulated exclusively by law and matters explicitly regulated by law. However, Presidential decrees issued in states of emer- gency shall not be subject to these limitations. These decrees shall be discussed and resolved by the GNAT within three months, otherwise, they shall be automatically abrogated. • The number of GNAT members was increased from 550 to 600. • The age for parliamentary election was low- ered from 25 to 18. • The 4-year parliamentary election period was extended to 5 years. • The requirement of an absolute majority of the total number of members (301) was intro- duced for the laws vetoed by the President of the Republic to be adopted by the Plenary of the GNAT. Prior to the amendment, no quali- fied majority was required. • Censure and oral questions were removed from the GNAT's means of obtaining informa- tion and control. • Military courts were abolished. Only discipli- nary courts and military courts related to the duties of military personnel in case of war can be established. • The martial law regime has been abolished. • The name of the High Council of Judges and Prosecutors has been changed to the Council of Judges and Prosecutors (HSK). • The number of members of the Constitutional Court and the Council of Judges and Prosecu- tors has been changed. FUNDAMENTAL ORGANS OF THE STATE In modern states, the fundamental duties and powers of the state are fulfilled and exercised by different organs, and these organs are named "leg- islative", "executive", and "judicial" according to the types of their duties and powers. The way in which these fundamental organs of the state are separated, their relations with each other, and the rules on how and by whom their functions will be fulfilled determine the systems of government. A pril 23, 1920, the day when the GNAT was founded, is one of the most important dates in the thousands of years of history of the Turkish nation because the opening of the GNAT is the most significant stage of the transi- tion to national sovereignty. The GNAT, the first institution where the power and will of the people were included in the administration, and thus de- mocracy was put into practice, is the highest insti- tution where the entire existence of the nation is represented. The GNAT was established to make the nation- al will dominant on the principle of "Sovereignty Rests Fully and Unconditionally with the Nation". According to the 1982 Constitution, the legisla- tive power is inalienably vested in the GNAT. The GNAT, unlike its counterparts in other nations, is not just a legislative body; it also played a key role in enabling the creation of a new state from the ru- ins of the Ottoman Empire by essentially leading the Turkish National Struggle during the National War of Independence. By taking on the duties of a Constituent Assembly, it included the people as a partner in the establishing process. LEGISLATIVE POWER 48 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE The Grand National Assembly of Türkiye (GNAT) has legislative authority on behalf of the Turkish people. This power cannot be transferred. The GNAT consists of 600 MPs elected by general ballot in elections held every five years. The As- sembly may decide to defer elections for one year due to war. Before the end of the five-year tenure, GNAT or the President of the Republic may opt to hold new elections (early elections). By-elections are held when vacancies arise in the membership of the GNAT. By-elections are held once in every election term. By-elections cannot be held within one year before general elections. Parliamentary elections are held under the gen- eral administration and supervision of the judi- cial organs in accordance with the principles of free, equal, secret, single-tier general ballot, open counting and casting. Every person who is a Turk- ish citizen and is at least 18 years old has the right to vote, and every person who has completed at least their primary education and is at least 18 years old has the right to be elected. The election method is determined by law. Members of parliament, who take office by taking the "oath", the text of which is included in the Con- stitution, represent the entire nation. MPs have legislative non-liability and immunity due to their duties. Legislative non-liability means that MPs are not liable for their votes and state- ments during parliamentary proceedings, for the views they express before the Assembly, and for repeating these outside the Assembly unless the Assembly decides otherwise. Legislative immunity means that an MP who is al- leged to have committed an offence before or after the election shall not be detained, interrogated, AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 49 arrested or tried unless the Assembly decides oth- erwise. Unlike legislative non-liability, legislative immunity is not absolute and permanent. The Plenary of the GNAT decides the loss of mem- bership of an MP in cases of resignation, insistence on holding a duty or service incompatible with parliamentary membership and absenteeism. If the legislative immunity of an MP has been lifted or if the loss of membership has been decided by the Plenary, this person may apply to the Consti- tutional Court for the cancellation of the decision. The loss of membership of an MP in the event of a final conviction or restriction is possible when the Plenary is notified of the final court decision in this regard. The main task of the Assembly is to make laws and supervise the executive. The Assembly conducts its work in accordance with the Constitution and its own internal regulations. Bill of laws can only be submitted by MPs, except for budget and final account bills. These bills are first discussed in committees formed according to their specialisation. The texts accepted by the com- mittees are discussed and finalised in the Plenary. The means of parliamentary control are written questions, general debate, parliamentary investiga- tion and parliamentary inquiry. • The GNAT campus can be visited with a guide on Mondays, Fridays and Saturdays when the GNAT Plenary does not work. • The activities of the GNAT Plenary can be watched on the GNAT TV, which broadcasts on TRT 3 until 21.00 on Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays, which are the working days of the Plenary. Additionally, the activities of the Plenary are uninterruptedly broadcast over the official website of the GNAT on the GNAT TV. • The 23rd of April, the day on which the Assembly was opened, was dedicated to children by Mustafa Kemal ATATÜRK. This date is celebrated as National Sovereignty and Children's Day all over the country. • Citizens can submit their requests and complaints directly to the GNAT via E-Petition in the electronic environment. DID YOU KNOW? 50 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE A referendum held on April 16, 2017, result- ing in an amendment to the Constitution of the Republic of Türkiye and followed by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's inauguration on July 9, 2018, officially abolished the parliamen- tary system based on a mild separation of powers and replaced it with the "Presidential System of Government," which entails a strict separation of powers. The goal of the transition to the presiden- tial system of government is to fulfil all state func- tions more quickly and efficiently and to ensure stability, speed, and continuity in the governance by removing the obstacles that slow down deci- sion-making processes in the parliamentary sys- tem and, by extension, the state system. In the parliamentary system, the executive pow- er is jointly exercised by the President and the Council of Ministers, but the Council of Ministers is the accountable executive body, whereas, in the presidential system of government, the President is the sole executive organ. However, within the extent of executive power and function, minis- ters and top executives can render the appropri- ate decisions pertaining to their duties and carry them out with authority granted by the relevant legislation. Again, "Presidential Cabinet" meetings are regularly convened in accordance with the na- tion's agenda despite the absence of authority to make decisions in the form of a "board decision." The Presidential Cabinet is comprised of a Vice President appointed by the President and a total of seventeen ministers, including the Minister of Justice, Minister of Family and Social Services, Minister of Labour and Social Security, Minister of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Energy and Natural Resources, Minister of Youth and Sports, Minister of Treasury and Finance, Minister of Interior, Minister of Culture and Tourism, Min- ister of National Education, Minister of National Defence, Minister of Health, Minister of Industry and Technology, Minister of Agriculture and For- estry, Minister of Trade and Minister of Transport and Infrastructure. The President, Presidential Candidacy and Election Presidential candidacy and election are specified in Article 101 of the Constitution, which regulates that the President of the Republic shall be elected directly by the public from among Turkish citi- zens over forty years of age who are eligible to be a deputy and have completed higher education. The President's term of office is five years. A person may be elected as the President for two terms at most. The President may be nominated by polit- EXECUTIVE POWER 52 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE ical party groups, political parties which received at least five per cent of valid votes on their own or collectively in the latest parliamentary elec- tions, or at least one hundred thousand voters. The President-elect's membership in the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye (GNAT) ceases. In presidential elections conducted by universal suffrage, the candidate who receives the absolute majority of the valid votes is elected President of the Republic. If the absolute majority cannot be obtained in the first ballot, the second ballot is held on the second Sunday following this ballot. Two candidates who received the highest number of votes in the first ballot run in the second bal- lot, and the candidate who receives the majority of valid votes is elected President of the Repub- lic. If one of the candidates who gain the right to run for the second ballot is unable to participate in the election for any reason, the second ballot is conducted by substituting the vacant candidacy in conformity with the ranking in the first ballot. If only one candidate remains for the second bal- lot, this ballot is conducted as a referendum. If the candidate receives the majority of the valid votes, he/she is elected President of the Republic. If that candidate fails to receive the majority of the valid votes in the election, only the presidential election is renewed. If the presidential election is not com- pleted, the term of office of the incumbent Pres- ident of the Republic continues until the Presi- dent-elect assumes office. The President is required by Article 103 of the Constitution to take an oath in front of the GNAT before assuming his/her duties. The President's Duties, Powers and Responsibilities Articles 8 and 104 of the Constitution govern the President's duties and powers. In accordance with Article 8 of the Constitution, executive power and function are exercised and carried out by the President of the Republic in conformity with the Constitution and laws. Article 104 of the Consti- tution outlines the President's duties and powers as follows: • The President of the Republic is the head of the State. The executive power shall be vested in the President of the Republic. • The President of the Republic, in his/her ca- pacity as the Head of State, shall represent the Republic of Türkiye and the unity of the Turkish nation; he/she shall ensure the im- plementation of the Constitution and orderly and harmonious functioning of the organs of the State. • He/she shall deliver the opening speech of the GNAT on the first day of the legislative year if he/she deems it necessary. • He/she shall give messages to the Assembly regarding the domestic and foreign policies of the country. • He/she shall promulgate laws. • He/she shall send laws back to the GNAT to be reconsidered. • He/she shall appeal to the Constitutional Court for the annulment of all or certain pro- visions of laws and the Rules of Procedure of the GNAT on the grounds that they are uncon- stitutional in form or in content. • He/she shall appoint and dismiss the deputies of the President of the Republic and the min- isters. • He/she shall appoint and dismiss the high-ranking public executives and shall reg- ulate the procedure and principles governing AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 53 the appointment thereof by presidential de- cree. • He/she shall accredit representatives of the Republic of Türkiye to foreign states and shall receive the representatives of foreign states appointed to the Republic of Türkiye. • He/she shall ratify and promulgate interna- tional treaties. • He/she shall submit laws regarding amend- ments to the Constitution to the referendum if he/she deems it necessary. • He/she shall determine national security poli- cies and take necessary measures. • He/she shall represent the Office of Com- mander-in-Chief of the Turkish Armed Forces on behalf of the GNAT. • He/she shall decide on the use of the Turkish Armed Forces. • He/she shall commute or remit the sentences imposed on persons on the grounds of chron- ic illness, disability or old age. • He/she may issue presidential decrees on matters regarding executive power. The fun- damental rights, individual rights and duties included in the first and second chapters and the political rights and duties listed in the fourth chapter of the second part of the Con- stitution shall not be regulated by a presiden- tial decree. No presidential decree shall be issued on the matters stipulated in the Con- stitution to be regulated exclusively by law. No presidential decree shall be issued on mat- ters explicitly regulated by law. In the case of a discrepancy between provisions of the pres- idential decrees and the laws, the provisions of the laws shall prevail. A presidential decree shall become null and void if the GNAT enacts a law on the same matter. • He/she may issue by-laws to ensure the imple- mentation of laws and presidential decrees, provided they are not contrary thereto. • He/she shall also exercise powers of election and appointment and perform the other du- ties conferred on him/her by the Constitution and laws. The Constitution specifies certain issues that should only be regulated by "Presidential Decree" in addition to the presidential decrees that the President may issue under the wider umbrella of "executive power." Accordingly, • Procedure and principles regarding the ap- pointment of high-ranking public executives (Constitution, Article 104/9), • The establishment, abolition, the duties and powers, the organisational structure of the ministries, and the establishment of their central and provincial organisations (Consti- tution, Article 106/last), • The functioning of the State Supervisory Council, the term of office of its members, and other personnel matters relating to their sta- tus (Constitution, Article 108/4), • The organisation and duties of the General Secretariat of the National Security Council (Constitution, Article 118/last) shall be regu- lated by presidential decree. In addition, the authority to establish a public cor- porate body is vested in both the GNAT and the President, pursuant to Article 123, paragraph 3, of the Constitution, which states: "Public corporate 54 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE bodies shall be established only by law or by pres- idential decree." Similarly, Article 119 of the Constitution states that the President of the Republic may declare a state of emergency in one region or nationwide for a period not exceeding six months in the event of war, the emergence of a situation necessitating war, mobilisation, an uprising, strong rebellious actions against the motherland and the Repub- lic, widespread acts of violence of internal or ex- ternal origin threatening the indivisibility of the country and the nation, emergence of widespread acts of violence aimed at the destruction of the Constitutional order or of fundamental rights and freedoms, serious deterioration of public order be- cause of acts of violence, the occurrence of natural disasters, outbreak of dangerous epidemic diseas- es or the emergence of a serious economic crisis. The decision to declare a state of emergency is published in the Official Gazette on the date of the decision and submitted for approval to the GNAT on the same day. In the event of a state of emergency, the President of the Republic may issue presidential decrees on matters necessitated by the state of emergency, notwithstanding the limitations outlined in Arti- cle 104, paragraph 17, provision 2: "The fundamen- tal rights, individual rights and duties included in the first and second chapters and the political rights and duties listed in the fourth chapter of the second part of the Constitution shall not be regu- lated by a presidential decree." Such decrees with the force of law are published in the Official Ga- zette and submitted for approval to the GNAT on the same day. Presidential decrees issued during the state of emergency shall be debated and decid- ed in the GNAT within three months. Otherwise, these decrees are annulled automatically. While the judicial remedy is not available against the decisions signed solely by the President ac- cording to the provisions of the Constitution in the parliamentary system, an administrative ju- dicial remedy has been established against the President's acts and decisions in the presidential system of government. The presidential decrees are supervised by the Constitutional Court with regard to both form and substance, in accordance with Articles 148 and 150 of the Constitution. Deputies, who currently have the authority to su- pervise the executive branch through parliamen- tary investigations and written questions, can also oversee presidential decrees through a Con- stitutional Court-filed action for annulment. In addition, as with the laws, a court hearing a case in which presidential decrees are also applicable may appeal to the Constitutional Court on the grounds that the applicable section of the presi- dential decree is unconstitutional. The executive power can be exercised via pres- idential decrees, presidential regulations, presi- dential decisions, regulatory actions to be taken by relevant institutions or organisations, and their administrative acts and actions. The rele- vant legislation serves as the basis for the execu- tive body's actions and decisions at all levels. In the parliamentary system, the principle of pres- idential non-accountability has been established, whereas in the new system, all government mem- bers, including the President, are administrative- ly, legally, and criminally accountable for their actions. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 55 Central Organisation and Organs As per Presidential Decree No. 1 on the Organisa- tion of the Presidency of the Republic, the central organisation comprises the Office of the Presi- dent, the Vice Presidency, the Directorate of Pres- idential Administrative Affairs, and the Presiden- tial Policy Councils. Office of the President It is governed by Presidential Decree No. 1. The Office of the President consists of the Office of the Chief of Cabinet to the President, established to provide services pertaining to the Office of the President and coordinate the President's official and personal correspondence, as well as to organ- ise and execute his/her domestic and international SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION POLICIES COUNCIL EDUCATION AND TEACHING POLICIES COUNCIL ECONOMIC POLICIES COUNCIL SECURITY AND FOREIGN POLICIES COUNCIL LEGAL POLICIES COUNCIL CULTURAL AND ARTS POLICIES COUNCIL HEALTH AND FOOD POLICIES COUNCIL SOCIAL POLICIES COUNCIL LOCAL ADMINISTRATION POLICIES COUNCIL MINISTRY OF JUSTICE MINISTRY OF FAMILY AND SOCIAL SERVICES MINISTRY OF LABOUR AND SOCIAL SECURITY MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, URBANISATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE MINISTRY OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES MINISTRY OF YOUTH AND SPORTS MINISTRY OF FAMILY AND SOCIAL SERVICES MINISTRY OF INTERIOR MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND TOURISM MINISTRY OF NATIONAL EDUCATION MINISTRY OF NATIONAL DEFENCE MINISTRY OF HEALTH MINISTRY OF INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY MINISTRY OF TRADE MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND INFRASTRUCTURE PRESIDENCY'S FINANCE OFFICE PRESIDENCY'S HUMAN RESOURCES OFFICE PRESIDENCY'S INVESTMENT OFFICE PRESIDENCY'S DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION OFFICE VICE PRESIDENT OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF CABINET TO THE PRESIDENT DIRECTORATE OF PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATIVE AFFAIRS PRESIDENTIAL ORGANISATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF TÜRKİYE DIRECTORATE OF STATE ARCHIVES STATE SUPERVISORY COUNCIL PRESIDENCY OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS DIRECTORATE OF COMMUNICATIONS GENERAL SECRETARIAT OF THE NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE ORGANISATION DIRECTORATE OF NATIONAL PALACES PRESIDENCY OF DEFENCE INDUSTRIES PRESIDENCY OF STRATEGY AND BUDGET TÜRKIYE WEALTH FUND Presidential Organisation 56 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE travels and attendance at ceremonial events; Chief Advisor and Advisor to the President appointed to advise the President and perform other duties assigned to him/her; and the Presidential High Advisory Board established to benefit from the accomplishments of the special representatives appointed to perform a special task in matters re- quiring special knowledge and expertise in foreign countries or before international organisations, as well as those who have served the nation and the state and possess knowledge and experience. Vice Presidency Pursuant to Article 106 of the Constitution, the President of the Republic may appoint one or more deputies after being elected. Article 17 of Presiden- tial Decree No. 1 stipulates that vice presidents perform the duties assigned by the President. If the Office of the President becomes vacant for any reason, a Presidential election is held within for- ty-five days. The Deputy President of the Republic acts as the President of the Republic and exercises his/her powers until the next President is elect- ed. In cases where the President of the Republic is temporarily absent from his/her duties on ac- count of illness or travelling abroad, the deputy president acts as the President of the Republic and exercises his/her powers. The deputies of the Pres- ident of the Republic are appointed from among those who are eligible to be a deputy and removed from office by the President of the Republic. The deputies of the President of the Republic take oath before the GNAT. If a member of the GNAT is ap- pointed as a deputy president, he/she loses his/her membership. The deputies are accountable to the President of the Republic. The absolute majority of the total number of the members of the GNAT may table a motion requesting that the deputies of the President of the Republic be investigated on allegations of perpetration of a crime regarding their duties. The GNAT may decide to refer it to the Supreme Criminal Tribunal with two-thirds of the total number of its members by secret ballot. The deputies of the President of the Republic enjoy leg- islative immunity regarding offences not related to their duties. Directorate of Presidential Administrative Affairs It was established in accordance with Article 5 of Presidential Decree No. 1 to carry out the respon- sibilities stipulated by the legislation and to fulfil the duties assigned by the President. The Direc- tor of Presidential Administrative Affairs is the Republic of Türkiye's highest-ranking civil serv- ant as well as the chief supervisor of the Direc- torate of Presidential Administrative Affairs. The Director of Presidential Administrative Affairs is responsible for and authorised to supervise the operations, actions, and accounts of all units and is accountable to the President of the Republic for the execution of the mentioned services in line with the legislation, the President's directives, and policies. Policy Councils Science, Technology and Innovation Policies Council, Education and Teaching Policies Coun- cil, Economic Policies Council, Security and For- eign Policies Council, Legal Policies Council, Cul- tural and Arts Policies Council, Health and Food Policies Council, Social Policies Council, and Lo- cal Administration Policies Council are the policy councils established by Presidential Decree No. 1. Article 21 of Presidential Decree No. 1 stipulates that these councils shall have at least three mem- bers. Members of the councils are appointed by the President. Additionally, the President serves as the chairperson of these councils. The Presi- dent designates one council member for the posi- tion of deputy chairperson. Article 22 of Presiden- tial Decree No. 1 lays out the general powers and duties of the councils. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 57 Affiliated Institutions In addition to the central organisation of the Pres- idency, the executive branch also comprises the institutions specified in Article 37 of Presidential Decree No. 1. These entities are affiliated with the Presidency and carry out the responsibilities out- lined in their respective presidential decrees or statutory job descriptions. These institutions in- clude: • Directorate of State Archives • State Supervisory Council • Presidency of Religious Affairs • Directorate of Communications • General Secretariat of the National Security Council • National Intelligence Organisation • Directorate of National Palaces • Presidency of Defence Industries • Presidency of Strategy and Budget • Türkiye Wealth Fund Presidential Offices The Digital Transformation Office, the Finance Office, the Human Resources Office and the In- vestment Office have been established under the Presidency of the Republic to fulfil the duties as- signed to them by the legislation within the scope of the exercise of the executive power. The Presi- dents are the highest supervisor of the Offices and are responsible for the general administration and representation of the Offices before the President of the Republic. The Presidents are responsible for ensuring cooperation and coordination with pub- lic institutions and organisations and non-gov- ernmental organisations on matters pertaining to their field of activity. The Offices are governed in accordance with the objectives, policies and strat- egies set by the President of the Republic. The Of- fices have the power and the duty to evaluate the legal, administrative and technical needs related to their purviews and to develop legislative pro- posals on issues that fall within their purviews. Ministers and Ministries Ministers Pursuant to Article 106 of the Constitution, the ministers are appointed from among those who are eligible to be a deputy and removed from of- fice by the President of the Republic. The minis- ters take oath before the GNAT. The President can also appoint ministers from among the members of the GNAT. If a member of the GNAT is appoint- ed as a minister, he/she shall lose his/her member- ship. The absolute majority of the total number of the members of the GNAT may table a motion re- questing that the ministers be investigated on allegations of perpetration of a crime regarding their duties. The GNAT may decide to refer it to the Supreme Criminal Tribunal with two-thirds of the total number of its members by secret ballot. The ministers enjoy legislative immunity regard- ing offences not related to their duties. As per Article 503 of Presidential Decree No. 1, the Minister is the highest supervisor of the ministry's organisation, is accountable for the ministry's ac- tions and the activities and actions of those under his/her command, and has the power and duty to supervise the operations, actions, and accounts of the ministry's central, provincial, and foreign 58 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE organisations, related and affiliated institutions. Ministers are responsible for providing ministe- rial services in conformity with the law, the Pres- ident's general policy, the President's decisions and directives, as well as development plans and annual programmes with the aim of the effective, economical, and efficient use of public resources and for ensuring cooperation and coordination with other ministries on matters pertaining to their field of activity and are accountable to the President. Ministries Ministries are entities established according to their fields of activity to exercise the executive body's authority and fulfil their duties. As per Arti- cle 503 of Presidential Decree No. 1, ministries are comprised of the central organisation, provincial and foreign organisations established as needed, and related and affiliated organisations. Article 106 of the Constitution stipulates that the estab- lishment, abolition, duties and powers, organisa- tional structure of the ministries, and establish- ment of their central and provincial organisations shall be regulated by the presidential decree. The ministry's central organisation is made up of the units required to carry out tasks such as provid- ing the services for which it is responsible, estab- lishing the goals and policies pertaining to those services, planning, and organising and providing resources, as well as coordination, surveillance and monitoring, administrative development and supervision. The ministry's provincial organisa- tion, which is in charge of achieving the ministry's founding objectives and delivering the services it provides to the public, is set up depending on the needs. Ministries have the authority to establish administrative arrangements for issues that fall under their purview. Regulatory and Supervisory Authorities The executive branch also contains regulatory and supervisory authorities with their own le- gal entity, administrative and financial autono- my, and regulatory and supervisory jurisdiction over economic, commercial, and legal domains. These institutions are organised independently according to their respective fields of activity, and their duties and powers are outlined in the per- tinent legislation. These institutions include the Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK), Information Technologies and Communications Authority (BTK), Capital Markets Board of Tür- kiye (CMB), Banking Regulatory and Supervi- sion Agency (BRSA), Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA), Public Procurement Author- ity (PPA), Turkish Competition Authority, Public Oversight Accounting and Auditing Standards Authority, Personal Data Protection Authority (KVKK), Nuclear Regulatory Authority and Insur- ance and Private Pension Regulation and Supervi- sion Agency (SEDDK). T he Turkish justice system comprises nu- merous structurally and institutionally distinct courts, institutions, and establish- ments that adhere to the principles of independ- ence and impartiality and whose tasks and juris- dictions are governed by specific laws. Article 9 of the Constitution of the Republic of Türkiye stipulates that judicial power is exercised by independent and impartial courts on behalf of the Turkish Nation. Based on the separation of powers, the judiciary is one of the three powers in Türkiye, along with the legislative and executive powers. The Turkish judicial system is divided into various branches, including ordinary jurisdiction (public prosecutor's offices, first instance courts, region- al courts of appeal, and the Court of Cassation), administrative jurisdiction (first instance courts, regional administrative courts, and the Council of State), constitutional jurisdiction (Constitutional Court) and dispute jurisdiction (Court of Jurisdic- tional Disputes). In addition, election jurisdiction (Supreme Election Council) and account jurisdic- tion (Court of Accounts) are parts of the judicial system. The Ministry of Justice is responsible for formu- lating and developing fundamental policies for the justice system, as well as providing justice ser- vices in an accessible, effective and efficient man- ner. The Council of Judges and Prosecutors (HSK), a constitutional and independent body, admin- isters the admission, appointment, promotion, and disciplinary procedures for judges and public prosecutors. Justice System THE JUDICIARY 60 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Lawyers, a vital component of the judicial sys- tem, engage in professional activities within the bar associations, which are public organisations for professionals. On the other hand, the Union of Turkish Bar Associations (TBB) is a parent organ- isation for all bar associations. Legal Order The Turkish legal order is maintained via the Constitution, laws, decree-laws, regulations and other regulatory mechanisms. As put forth by the Constitution, international agreements duly put into effect have the force of law. No appeal to the Constitutional Court can be made with regard to these agreements on the grounds that they are unconstitutional. The Constitution stipulates that in the case of a conflict between international agreements duly put into effect concerning funda- mental rights and freedoms and the laws due to differences in provisions on the same matter, the provisions of international agreements prevail. Türkiye was invited to join the Council of Eu- rope in August 1949, three months after the or- ganisation's foundation, and is considered one of the organisation's founding members. Türkiye also signed the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) to safeguard human rights and fundamental freedoms. Türkiye became involved in the ECHR's review process by acknowledging the right to an individual application to the EC- tHR in 1987 and recognising the compulsory juris- diction of the ECtHR in 1990. Individuals' rights and freedoms can only be con- strained by law. The rule of law, judicial independ- ence, and the legal judicial process are indispen- sable. Hearings are open to the public. Everyone has the right to litigation and a fair trial before the courts through legitimate means and procedures. No one may be tried by any judicial authority oth- er than the legally designated court. Only independent and impartial judges are grant- ed the right to trial. Civil/criminal and adminis- trative courts are governed by judges and public prosecutors. Judges and public prosecutors can- not be dismissed, or unless they request, cannot be retired before the age of 65; nor can they be de- prived of their salaries, allowances or other rights relating to their status, even as a result of the abo- lition of a court or a post. As a requirement of the state of law, the judicial remedy is available in Türkiye for all administra- tive acts and actions, including disciplinary meas- ures against public officials. Judicial Bodies In addition to the ordinary judicial branch, which is the general branch in charge of settling disputes, the Turkish justice system also has an admin- istrative judicial branch charged with resolving disputes arising from the acts and proceedings of administrations. Under this system, referred to as the jurisdictional dualism system, there are two distinct judicial branches, namely the ordinary ju- risdiction and the administrative jurisdiction. In both jurisdictions, legal remedies are two- staged: appeal to the regional court of appeal and appeal to the Court of Cassation. The ordinary jurisdiction, where criminal and civ- il disputes are resolved, is a general judicial branch responsible for handling disputes not delegated to another judicial branch by the Constitution or laws. The ordinary jurisdiction is split into civil and criminal jurisdictions, and public prosecutors serve as the prosecuting authority on behalf of the public in the criminal jurisdiction. In each city centre and district where the court- houses are located, there is a Chief Public Pros- ecutor's Office bearing the name of that city or district. Chief Public Prosecutor's Offices employ a sufficient number of public prosecutors. Law enforcement officers carry out investigations un- der Chief Public Prosecutor's Offices. Chief Public Prosecutor's Offices are charged with a variety of duties, including conducting criminal investiga- tions ex officio or upon complaint, pursuing legal action when necessary by taking part in judicial AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 61 proceedings in public cases, carrying out proce- dures related to the enforcement of final court de- cisions, and undertaking other tasks stipulated by law. Public prosecutors enjoy the tenure of judges. Some disputes in the first instance courts are re- solved by specialised courts or the chambers of specialised courts. First-instance criminal courts that fall under ordi- nary jurisdiction include criminal courts of peace, criminal courts of first instance, assize courts, juvenile heavy criminal courts, juvenile courts, criminal enforcement courts, criminal courts of intellectual and industrial property rights and offices of judge of execution. First-instance civil courts that fall under ordinary jurisdiction include general courts, including civil courts of peace, and civil courts of first instance, and specialised courts, including commercial courts of first in- stance, civil enforcement courts, cadastral courts, labour courts, consumer courts, civil courts of in- tellectual and industrial property rights and fam- ily courts. Regional courts of appeal are responsible for re- viewing and deciding on applications for appeal remedy against judgments and decisions deliv- ered by courts of first instance under ordinary jurisdiction but have not been finalised. Regional courts of appeal have already been established in 18 different regions. The Court of Cassation is charged with reviewing and deciding on judgments and decisions ren- dered by the courts of justice and is not delegated to another judicial authority by law. The Court of Cassation is composed of criminal and civil cham- bers, as well as general assemblies of the civil and criminal chambers. Administrative jurisdiction is the judicial branch that reviews administrative acts and proceedings for compliance with the law. The written trial procedure is admissible in the proceedings, and investigations are conducted over documents. Administrative courts of first instance comprise administrative and tax courts. Regional administrative courts are the judicial body in charge of reviewing and ruling on appeals and objections against administrative and tax court decisions. Regional administrative courts have already been established in nine distinct re- gions. The Council of State deals with certain adminis- trative cases as a first instance court and fulfils the duty of appellate review in other administrative cases. Court of Cassation The Court of Jurisdictional Disputes is the su- preme court charged with resolving conflicts of ju- risdiction and judgement between courts of ordi- nary jurisdiction and administrative jurisdiction. A courtroom in Istanbul (Çağlayan) Courthouse 62 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Council of State Council of Judges and Prosecutors Council of Judges and Prosecutors The Council of Judges and Prosecutors is a con- stitutional body in charge of carrying out proce- dures pertaining to judges and public prosecutors, including admission, appointment, promotion, disciplinary action, leave, and election of mem- bers to the high judiciary, in accordance with the principles of the rule of law, independence and impartiality of the courts, and the tenure of judges and prosecutors. The Council is administratively and financially independent, and no judicial body, authority, or person may give the Council orders or instructions while it performs its duties and ex- ercises its powers. A portion of the thirteen-mem- ber Council is elected by the President of the Re- public of Türkiye from among the first-category judges and public prosecutors who serve in the civil/criminal and administrative courts of first instance and who have not lost their qualifica- tions to be assigned to the first category while the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye elects others with a qualified majority from among the mem- bers of the Court of Cassation and the Council of State, jurist faculty members, and lawyers meet- ing specified criteria. The Minister of Justice also serves as the President of the Council. Two cham- bers and a general assembly comprise the Council of Judges and Prosecutors. The Constitutional Court The Constitutional Court reviews the constitu- tionality of laws, presidential decrees, and the Rules of Procedure of the Grand National As- sembly of Türkiye with respect to form and sub- stance. It examines and reviews the constitutional amendments only in terms of their forms. Individual applications made with the allegation that any fundamental rights and freedoms se- cured in the Constitution, which are included in the European Convention on Human Rights, are violated by public force are also examined and de- cided by the Constitutional Court. Constitutional Court AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 63 Constitutional Court's General Assembly Hall In addition, the Supreme Court proceedings and the financial audit of political parties and their dissolution cases are also heard before the Consti- tutional Court. If the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye decides on the lifting of the legislative im- munity or the loss of the deputyship, it also final- ises the applications against these decisions with a request for reversal. The Constitutional Court consists of fifteen mem- bers, three of whom are appointed by the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye from among the president and members of the Court of Accounts and self-employed lawyers, and the remaining 12 members are appointed by the President of the Republic of Türkiye from among the president and members of the Court of Cassation and the Council of State, faculty members working in the fields of law, economics, and political sciences, senior managers, self-employed lawyers, first cat- egory judges and prosecutors, and Constitutional Court rapporteurs who have worked as rappor- teurs for at least five years. Court of Accounts The Court of Accounts is in charge of auditing and adjudicating, on behalf of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye, all incomes, expenditures, properties, accounts and transactions of public administrations, social security institutions, and local administrations within the scope of the cen- tral government budget. The president and mem- bers of the Court of Accounts are elected by the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye. Supreme Election Council Elections are held under the general management and supervision of the judicial authorities. The Supreme Election Council is responsible for car- rying out all the procedures, from the beginning to the end of the elections, related to the orderly administration of the elections, examining the complaints and objections regarding the election issues during and after the elections, and making a final decision. No appeal can be made to any oth- er authority against the decisions of the Supreme Election Council. The members are elected by the General Assemblies of the Court of Cassation and the Council of State from among their own mem- bers. Legal Representation Legal practice in Türkiye is a self-employed pro- fession, and lawyers represent independent de- fence, one of the judiciary's founding pillars. Lawyers registered with the bar association have the authority to litigate and defend the rights of natural and legal persons, follow up on judicial proceedings, arrange all documents pertaining to these matters, and give opinions on legal issues before courts, arbitrators, or other bodies having jurisdiction. Lawyers can also follow up on pro- ceedings in government offices. The legal practice is carried out by citizens of the Republic of Türki- ye who have graduated from the Faculty of Law, completed their legal internship and registered with the bar association. Bar associations are professional public organ- isations that work to develop legal practice and 64 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE regulate the relations of the profession's members with each other and clients. The Union of Turkish Bar Associations (TBB) is a parent organisation for all bar associations. The Union is a profession- al public organisation with a legal personality and various duties and powers in matters concerning bar associations and lawyers. The headquarters of the Union is in Ankara. Legal Aid All suspects and defendants who request during criminal proceedings and victims of crimes that require at least five years of imprisonment have the opportunity to be represented by a lawyer free of charge. As long as they are disabled or deaf and mute to the extent that they cannot defend them- selves, any suspects or accused are assigned a lawyer without seeking a request or being limited to any type of lawsuit. If the juvenile accused, sus- pect, or victim does not have a lawyer during the investigation or prosecution, no request is sought for the appointment of a lawyer. Legal aid in criminal proceedings grants the ben- eficiary exemption from all costs, including law- yer's fees. The expenses of the translator appoint- ed for the suspect, accused, victim, or witness who does not speak Turkish or who is disabled are not considered litigation costs, and these expenses are covered by the State Treasury. Legal aid provides a means for those who do not have the opportunity to meet the necessary litiga- tion or follow-up costs in civil and administrative courts or enforcement offices. Legal aid exempts beneficiaries from all litigation and follow-up costs. Legal aid requests submitted to the bar as- sociations and lawyer services for those who are unable to afford them are met by the legal aid of- fices. As in criminal proceedings, legal aid in civ- il and administrative courts is not limited to any case. Foreigners can also benefit from legal aid. Alternative Dispute Resolution Methods Some disputes are resolved peacefully, quickly, and economically between the parties without being brought before a court. Mediation, one of these methods, is a flexible dis- pute resolution process carried out in the pres- ence of an independent and impartial third party called the mediator. The parties are free to apply to a mediator, to continue the process, conclude it, or abandon it. When the parties reach an agree- ment at the end of the mediation, a written agree- ment document is prepared and signed by the parties and the mediator. The parties may request the court to issue an annotation regarding the enforceability of this agreement document. The agreement document, signed jointly by the par- ties, their lawyers, and the mediator, on the other hand, is considered a document like a judgment without seeking an annotation of enforceability. Mediators must be registered in the registry main- tained by the Ministry of Justice. It is obligatory to apply to a mediator before filing a lawsuit in some disputes and some commercial disputes within the scope of the Labour Law and the Consumer Protection Law. Another method, reconciliation, on the other hand, is the process of resolving the dispute by means of an impartial conciliator appointed by the Public Prosecutor between the suspect or accused and the victim, aggrieved or legal repre- sentative during the investigation or prosecution initiated due to a crime within the scope of recon- ciliation. In reconciliation, the execution may include full or partial compensation or restitution in kind of the pecuniary or non-pecuniary damage caused by the act; making donations to a public institution or a private institution serving the public interest, a person or persons in need of help; temporarily performing certain public services, or participat- ing in a programme that will enable them to be a AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 65 useful member of society. The parties can also rec- oncile without execution. In the case of reconciliation and fulfilment of the execution during the investigation phase, a de- cision of non-prosecution is rendered about the suspect, which is not recorded in the criminal re- cord. Otherwise, a public case is filed. In the case of reconciliation and fulfilment of the execution during the prosecution phase, the dismissal deci- sion that is rendered is not recorded in the crimi- nal record. Otherwise, the trial continues. If recon- ciled, a compensation case cannot be filed due to the crime subject to investigation; the filed case is deemed to have been waived. Information Technologies in the Judiciary Judicial activities are carried out in a digital envi- ronment with the National Judiciary Informatics System (UYAP). Thanks to the system, individuals and lawyers can file lawsuits over the internet and follow up on all the information about their cases. In UYAP, all courthouses and many related insti- tutions are connected to each other by an elec- tronic network. All judicial or administrative work and transactions in units such as courts, public prosecutors' offices, enforcement offices, and pen- itentiary institutions are carried out through this system. Members of the SMS information system are in- formed about lawsuits, enforcement proceedings, or proceedings against them via SMS, and they can easily access information regarding the judi- cial processes they are involved in through the op- erators in the call centres. In addition, with the Audio and Video Informa- tion System (SEGBİS), the courts can take state- ments via remote video calls. This system is used in all courthouses and penitentiary institutions. SOCIAL LIFE 66 SOCIAL LIFE -- RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL LIFE -- IMPORTANT DAYS (RELIGIOUS AND NATIONAL HOLIDAYS) -- WOMAN AND SOCIETY -- SOCIAL SERVICES AND SOCIAL ASSISTANCE -- MIGRATION AND ASYLUM-SEEKERS -- CIVIL SOCIETY AND NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS SOCIAL LIFE 68 RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL LIFE T he Republic of Türkiye's social structure, which is a secular state governed by the rule of law based on a constitutional order (Constitution of the Republic of Türkiye, Article 2), consists predominantly of Sunni Muslims. Ac- cording to the data in the "Religious Life in Türkiye Survey" conducted in 2014 on religious and cultur- al life, 99.2% of the population is Muslims; within this structure, there are smaller religious groups such as Yazidis and Assyrians, as well as groups affiliated with various sects of religions such as Judaism and Christianity. In this environment, the religious and cultural life of Turkish society has been shaped by the heterogeneous nature of the Anatolian lands, as well as the religion of Is- lam's principle of coexistence with tolerance. This past-to-present experience of living together has been blended with acceptances based on modern norms and principles such as democracy, the rule of law, universal human rights, and human digni- ty throughout the Republican era and has created the basic beliefs, values, and preferences of today's Turkish society. Thus, the Turkish culture, which has matured spiritually with the basic teachings of Islam, has become the epitome of great toler- ance and hospitality in which traditional forms and modern life are intertwined. The principle of equality and freedom, which ex- ists in the religious and cultural life of Turkish so- ciety, is legally guaranteed by the Constitution of the Republic of Türkiye. According to this, "Every- one is equal before the law without distinction as to language, race, colour, sex, political opinion, philosophical belief, religion and sect, or any such grounds." (Article 10). Moreover, as a constitu- tional requirement, "Everyone has the freedom of conscience, religious belief and conviction…. Acts of worship, religious rites and ceremonies shall be conducted freely. No one shall be compelled to worship, or to participate in religious rites and ceremonies, or to reveal religious beliefs and con- victions, or be blamed or accused because of his religious beliefs and convictions." (Article 24). The roots of these principles, which govern the consti- tutional functioning of the Republic of Türkiye, are based on virtues such as justice, generosity, courage, honesty, benevolence and heroism that Turks have upheld since the pre-Islamic period, as well as the basic moral teachings that they have gained after accepting Islam and blended with their own culture. The religious foundations of this understanding rise on the principles of the Holy Qur'an, which centred on freedom of belief by stating that "Let there be no compulsion in re- ligion" (Surah Al-Baqarah, 2/256) and "(O Proph- et!) Invite all to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and kind advice..." (Surah An-Nahl, 16/125) and 70 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE the saying of Prophet Muhammad, "Speak to peo- ple good words". The deep-rooted religious and cultural life of Turkish civilisation began with the transfer of moral principles internalised by the Anatolian people by feeding from these main sources to practical life through living together with different communities. Thanks to this all-encompassing vision, which respects different understandings and lifestyles and enables peaceful living with them, it has been aimed to create a stable social order based on mu- tual trust from the very beginning. Indeed, the ha- dith (sayings of the Prophet) of Prophet Muham- mad, "A Muslim is the one who avoids harming Muslims with his tongue and hands." (Bukhari, Belief, 4), has always preserved its guiding role in the religious and cultural life of the Turks. The facts that his epithet as "Trusted Muhammad" (Muhammad Al-Amin) and the region where the first Muslim community lived as "trusted town" (Balda al-amin) are among the examples showing the position of the concept of "trust" in the centre of social life. This tradition was not only limited to the internal affairs of Muslim states but also reflected in the international law of the time, sim- ilar examples were presented in the "public inter- national law", and social order with criteria high above the standards of the age was established. Thus, it was ensured that the geographies where Muslims lived were free and safe towns through- out the ages. The most obvious example of this is that the se- curity of life, religion, mind, property and genera- tion of people of all faiths living in the conquered regions after the Turks' conversion to Islam was guaranteed by the edict of the rulers, and this practice became an established tradition over time. The living practice of the Turks, who lived peacefully together with members of other races and faiths in the vast geographies they settled throughout history, merged with the Islamic tradi- tion and practices after their conversion to Islam, resulting in consciousness, style and experience of "living together" that is rare in history. Anatolian geography has been recognised as host- ing different civilisations throughout history. The Hittites, Lydians, Phrygians, Lycians, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks, Ottomans, and peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus, and Central Asia devel- oped harmony within themselves, as evidenced by this aspect of Anatolia. This harmony is also home to modern Türkiye's historical and cultur- al legacy. In fact, all of the features of the Gre- co-Latin, Judeo-Christian, and Islamic cultures that have prevailed for over a thousand years can be seen in the geography where Türkiye is locat- ed. In other words, different ethnic, religious, and cultural communities have lived in peace on these territories for ages, and this geography has donat- ed the model of living together of these elements in security and peace to the world of humanity. In addition to the frequency of contact with for- eign cultures and religions in Turkish history, the socio-cultural conditions that have emerged from the beginning have allowed the formation and tradition of a tolerant attitude towards the beliefs and traditions of different nations among the Turks. As a matter of fact, the most typical examples of this religious tolerance are shown by the great Sufis. Sufis such as Haji Bektash Veli, Ahi Avran, Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi, Yunus Emre and Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi, who are members of Bektashism and similar sects, which are accepted as the branches of Yasawism in Anatolia, brought Turkish customs and traditions to Anatolia to- gether with Islam, are cultural ambassadors. Indeed, the Sufi tradition, which was born in Cen- tral Asia and spread to Anatolia and has a sig- nificant impact on the accurate understanding of Islam, especially Yasavism, has a great role in shaping the religious structure of the Anatolian ge- ography. This understanding enabled the mingling of cultural life with religious rituals over the centu- AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 71 ries and served to the formation of "Turkish Islam". The transmission of this distinct religious and cul- tural worldview, shaped by the contribution of Sufi teachings, from generation to generation is at least as important as religious rituals. As a result, the basic religious-literary texts, which are the prod- ucts of the period in question, have assumed the role of the bearers of the tradition, shaped the so- ciety and ensured the adoption of folk culture with religious patterns in social life. Thanks to this cul- ture, the transmission of religious and cultural life has gained an institutional identity. Thanks to the guidance of both cultural and oral transmission and the written sources in which religious texts are contained, the religious-cultural structure in the Anatolian geography has served as a bridge that is deeply rooted and nourished and also ex- tends to new generations through its branches and leaves. This trait has also shielded socio-cultural and religious life from unexpected and deep-root- ed destructive effects. Within this tradition, the principles of Islam have been adopted as the basic dynamics of society and have contributed to the construction of a social or- der in which people of different religions and na- tionalities can live together in peace for centuries. Undoubtedly, the riches that fed the religious, so- cial and cultural structure of the Anatolian geog- raphy were not limited to Yasavism. Yunus Emre, who integrated himself with the values of the culture in which he was born and engaged with the heart of humanity, is one of the prominent figures of Anatolian wisdom. Yunus, wandering every inch of Anatolia, told people about the es- sence of religion; in other words, he endeavoured to express the aspects that nourished the spirit of solidarity by encompassing the person and the society. As a product of this effort, his lines have gained the identity of a common "value pool" that brings the members of the society closer to each other; cultural values with religious tones in these lines played an active role in healing the wounds of the society. Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi is one of the bearers of religious tones in cultural values, one of the most essential factors that keep society together during the destructions, occupations, and wars that Ana- tolian geography has been exposed to throughout history. He was one of the cultural ambassadors who ensured the strengthening of the sense of unity and solidarity in Turkish society at one of the times when social integration was most dam- aged, and the revival of humanistic morality, tol- erance and love on a global scale. Mawlana, like Khoja Ahmet Yasawi and Yunus Emre, is a pioneer of national and spiritual values who succeeded in re-blending the dough of religious and cultural life with the values of love, peace, and tolerance. The worldview, which is called the tradition of Anatolian wisdom and, in Yunus Emre's words, "tolerates the created for the sake of the Creator", is based on positive thoughts about and attitudes toward one another. Thus, it adds a deep modes- ty to one's personality and pushes the boundaries of an altruistic, self-contained culture with its strong understanding of existence. As a matter of fact, the Anatolian people, as a divine command, have ingrained charity in their hearts with an ap- proach that advises sharing, modesty and peace In Anatolia, the religious and cultural structure served as a bridge to new generations. 72 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE rather than detachment from life. This worldview is distinguished by the approach that upholds the values of high modesty, tolerance, love, com- passion and mercy of the great wises, including Haji Bektash Veli, Haji Bayram Veli, Sha'ban Wali and Ashrafoglu Rumi, along with Ahmed Yasawi, Yunus Emre, and Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi. This all-encompassing approach obliges the human to protect and observe the law of not only human beings but also all beings and regards everything around it as trust. Cultural values with religious tones, which seek to reconstruct humanity along the axis of funda- mental beliefs and acknowledgements, serve as a bridge for them to discover both themselves and the cosmos. Possessing this characteristic, Ana- tolian wisdom, as an understanding that moulds people's psychology, view on life, and contribu- tions to life, imbues the descendants of these lands with a humble and benevolent personality capable of bridging gaps on the one hand, and it opens the door to joyous and serene life on the other. This holistic vision of religion, which origi- nates in the Anatolian lands, counsels both an in- ner journey and an approach founded on a heart- felt commitment to the entire world. This vision is based on a broad perspective that encompasses not just people who adhere to the same religion and philosophy but also those who do not. Religious and cultural life shaped in Anatolia was marked by a certain degree of dynamism, particu- larly during the foundation of the Ottoman Em- pire and kept its doors wide open to tolerance and appreciation for diversity. Such was an indication of Ottoman tolerance towards non-Muslim sub- jects that in 1492, hundreds of thousands of Jews AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 73 fleeing persecution in Spain and Portugal sought refuge in the Ottoman Empire. In Ottoman socie- ty, Muslims and non-Muslims not only built near- by villages but also established towns where they coexisted in peace. In these cities, they established joint institutions and organisations for the mutual benefit of everybody. Sometimes they lived side- by-side in the same neighbourhood, while other times, they wanted to maintain their neighbour- ly relationships by residing in surrounding areas. They shopped at the same market, ate and drank at the same soup kitchen, and slaked their thirst at the same drinking fountain. They respected one another's synagogue, church, and mosque despite not worshipping at the same place. Thus, Shab- bat of the Jews, Sunday worship of the Christians, and Friday prayer of the Muslims were regarded as part of the shared customs and traditions and observed as a common living practice for genera- tions. Common pilgrimage destinations were fre- quently visited at the same time, and people did not avoid congregating in sacred places or even worshipping together. In Ottoman society, Muslims and non-Muslims alike demonstrated their faith in the justice sys- tem by bringing their unresolved legal disputes to the "qadis." This is evidenced by their eagerness to have their cases heard in the same court as Mus- lims. As revealed by these court documents, Mus- lims whose cases were tried upon the complaint of non-Muslims consented to the qadi's decision, even if it was against them, and the verdict was carried out accordingly. There are instances where a Muslim man married a non-Muslim woman and created a loving home. They raised kids and set the ideal example of coexisting in this society. As such, they led a life with shared characteristics not only in their clothes but also in their architec- ture, folklore, cuisine, arbours, roofs, and court- yards. Muslims and non-Muslims, who gathered together for festivities and other events and coex- isted by relying on one another to meet their di- verse daily needs, shared the pleasure of the same musical tunes. Besides, when they lost loved ones, they did not hesitate to share their sorrows and sadness, just as they shared their joys and amuse- ments. The changing nature of religious and cultural life in historical and social contexts is a natural conse- quence of the functioning of social life. Due to this dynamic nature, religious and cultural structures must be reconsidered in every period. While the statement "Islam is the religion of the state" was contained in the 1924 Constitution, which was adopted with the foundation of modern Türkiye, it is well-known that this phrase was subsequent- ly removed and a separation of religion and state affairs became the practice. This approach caused religious structures to start being governed by their internal dynamics and subjected to certain limitations during the Republic's early years. As a consequence of reforms introduced with a modern state perception and the ideal of being a western state, differentiations emerged in the traditional structure of religious groupings, and the state emphasised and fostered the institution- alisation of religious organisations. As one of the fundamental principles of the Republic of Türki- ye, secularism became the most significant factor in determining the policies of this era. Türkiye is the only Islamic country to include secularism in its constitution and implement it. On February Balat 74 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 5, 1937, "secularism" was designated a constitu- tional principle. Since the principle of secularism was initially implemented with an authoritarian stance and the institutionalisation of religious groups was a fragile process, a number of issues arose. However, the developed policy's long-term objective was to soften the restricted structures of religious groups, albeit partially. The tradition- al religious forms present in the community's life were given a corporate identity in the process that followed while also training the religious officials that the society needed via state-established reli- gious services and institutions of higher religious education, particularly the Presidency of Reli- gious Affairs and the Ankara University's Faculty of Divinity. Through these institutions, scientif- ic research was conducted not only on Islam but also on numerous religions, cultures, and histories throughout the world, and these studies are ongo- ing. In Türkiye, the Presidency of Religious Affairs (DIB), which was founded under the Prime Minis- try on March 3, 1924, provides services pertaining to the belief, worship, and moral principles of Islam as well as informing the public. The establishment of DIB was motivated by Ziya Gökalp's suggestion to establish a centralised religious services organ- isation. According to him, disorder and abuse in religious services can be avoided if they acquire an institutional identity under governmental control. DIB's current organisational structure consists of central, provincial, and overseas representations, and DIB works with its staff to help all citizens, regardless of sect, meet their religious obligations. Through activities inside and outside mosques, DIB provides a vast array of religious services to various segments of society in a variety of settings, including prisons, hospitals, children's homes, women's shelters, student dormitories under the Higher Education Student Loans and Dormito- ries Institution, youth centres, non-governmental organisations, and numerous public institutions and organisations. DIB conducts its services based on the fundamental Islamic resources while also taking into account the religious background and experience throughout Islam's history, the fun- damental tenets of rationality and contemporary science, and societal circumstances and needs, as well as arranging national and international meet- ings to advance domestic and international reli- gious services and enlighten the public with sound religious knowledge. In accordance with the Law on Unification of Ed- ucation, dated March 3, 1924, and numbered 430, AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 75 which was adopted concurrently with the found- ing law of the Presidency of Religious Affairs, formal religious education activities commenced within the then-Ministry of Education. Since that time, despite periodic disruptions, these activi- ties have continued in elementary, secondary, and high schools. Ankara University's Faculty of Di- vinity was established in 1949, marking the begin- ning of higher education-level religious education and training initiatives. As of 2022, the number of higher religious education institutions, which diversified in the 1980s and continued to expand in the 2000s, is nearing 120. It is the goal of these institutions to educate theologians who can put religious and cultural legacy to good use, produce answers to problems using scientific data, possess fundamental knowledge, mindset, and approach in the field of theology, and display lifelong learn- ing abilities as well as those who strive for self-im- provement and being virtuous through internal- ising knowledge, absorb religious legacy, believe in the necessity of being open to all types of inno- vations and continuous development that will be beneficial to humanity, and share their knowledge with society to serve humanity. Training highly qualified theologians and theology scientists who are research-oriented, participatory, cooperative, adaptable, and equipped with the professional knowledge and abilities needed in theology today to satisfy the demands of our society and human- ity for religious service is also among the goals of these institutions. Graduates of institutions of higher religious education known as the Faculty of Divinity and the Faculty of Islamic Sciences cur- rently hold positions as religious officials, teachers of religious culture and moral knowledge, experts in religious services, and academics, particularly in the Presidency of Religious Affairs and various units of the Ministry of National Education. In ad- dition to these two institutions, they actively con- tribute to society's socio-cultural and religious life by facilitating the implementation of religious ser- vices in various civic spheres alongside numerous public institutions and organisations. The Republic of Türkiye maintains its legacy from the past by bolstering it with contemporary edu- cational institutions to construct a scientific un- derstanding of religion. It thus aims to maintain a notion of tolerance that integrates religious and cultural life and appreciates diversity by passing it down from generation to generation. Various open-to-worship churches and synagogues in our country, as well as numerous cultural relics and examples throughout the lands that are the vestig- es of the Ottoman Empire, demonstrate the conti- nuity and strength of the cultural legacy with reli- gious tones. Due to the advantages of experience and background provided by a heterogeneous cul- ture, it is common to observe the places of worship of three major religions side by side in our nation. Since a belief system cannot be treated apart from the framework from which it developed or into which it was subsequently incorporated, culture and religion should be viewed as interconnected and mutually formative phenomena. In this sense, Türkiye's religious and cultural life continues to serve as an outstanding example of religion-cul- ture interaction in the modern world owing to its historical experience and intercultural, multi-lay- ered structure, nourished by ancient human val- ues in which Turkish culture and Islamic tradition are blended. Nevmekan 76 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE W ith the efforts of nations to remain a na- tion and become a state, certain days be- come important under the influence of religious beliefs, underlining the significance and value of the sacrifices made for unity and solidarity. We have national and religious days and holidays that we celebrate as a nation, and the national ones have generally earned their place in history and are marked as the days of restoring peace and calm following war and disaster. Such days strengthen the social dynamics of the nation and unite people. These are the times when a sense of national sol- idarity and unity consolidates, resulting in social reconciliation. New and old victories won in every period of histo- ry, anniversaries of special historical events, the en- thronement of rulers, the beginning of the seasons, the sowing of the seeds or the harvesting of the first crops, and significant days such as April 23, May 19, August 30, October 29, July 15 are the days that change the destiny of the society and are celebrated as holidays. April 23 National Sovereignty and Children’s Day On April 23, 1920, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as a sup- porter of the resistance movement he launched in Anatolia, inaugurated the Grand National As- sembly of Türkiye (GNAT), representing the inde- pendence of the Turkish nation and the will of the people. Atatürk dedicated this day to children in Türkiye and around the world as he regarded chil- dren as the future's legacy. IMPORTANT DAYS (RELIGIOUS AND NATIONAL HOLIDAYS) 78 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE May 19 Commemoration of Atatürk, Youth and Sports Day May 19, 1919, is one of the significant dates in Turk- ish history. On this day, Atatürk departed Istanbul for Samsun, which is considered the beginning of the Turkish War of Independence. This day marked the beginning of the organisation of the Turkish resistance in Anatolia, which was essential for de- fending the homeland. May 19 is considered the first spark of the Turkish Independence Victory and is observed every year as the Commemoration of Atatürk, Youth and Sports Day. August 30 Victory Day The biggest and most glorious battle of the War of Independence, known as the Battle of the Com- mander-in-Chief, won by Turkish soldiers bravely with heroism, ended with victory on August 30, 1922. This battle, which ended the War of Independ- ence with victory, is celebrated with ceremonies every year as Victory Day. October 29 Republic Day On October 29, 1923, the form of government of the newly founded modern Türkiye following the War of Independence was declared to be a Republic. As the founding anniversary of our Republic, October 29 is marked annually with ceremonies. July 15 Democracy and National Unity Day On July 15, 2016, the coup attempt of the treacher- ous terrorist organisation FETO, which was organ- ised by infiltrating state and military organisations in our country, was defeated by the strong will of the people, the resistance of the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK), and the police. July 15, which represents the national will and the power of democracy, has been designated Democracy and National Unity Day. In accordance with its meaning, national holidays are usually celebrated joyfully, and august martyrs are commemorated. On these days, parades, corteg- es, torchlight processions, folk dance performances, as well as other performances and concerts are held. In Türkiye, where nearly 90 per cent of the popula- tion is Muslim, two religious holidays are observed. These are the Eid-al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. Eid-al-Fitr Eid-al-Fitr is a holiday celebrating the performance of the fasting duty. Some preparations are made on the eve of Eid al-Fitr. Delicious food and desserts are prepared. On the first day, everyone dresses up, and new clothes are purchased especially for children. Men perform Salat-al-Eid in the mosque on the first day of Eid. The feast of the congregation begins upon exchanging good wishes at the conclusion of the prayer. The Ramadan Feast lasts three days. Peo- ple celebrate each other's holidays by paying visits to their acquaintances, friends, and relatives during the holiday season. Cologne, sweets, and candies are typically served during these visits. Cemetery visits begin on the eve. Some elders reward children who kiss their hands with gifts or pocket money. Small groups of children go door-to-door collect- ing candies. As a result, Eid-al-Fitr is also known as Candy Feast, particularly among children. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 79 Eid al-Adha Eid-al-Adha traditions are generally similar to those of Eid-al-Fitr, with the exception that people whose economic situation exceeds a certain level within the framework of religious principles sacrifice an animal for God on this holiday. Those who sacrifice an animal must provide meat from the sacrificed animal to those who cannot. There is an under- standing of closeness to God and self-sacrifice to the people in the spirit of this worship. Sacrifice in- dicates a Muslim's willingness to give up his entire existence in the service of Allah when necessary. Importance of Religious and National Holi- days to our Nation National and religious holidays are exceptional days in the lives of societies. These are the enthusiastic days when everyone can appreciate and share the beauty of social unity and solidarity, friendship and fraternity, and the peace brought to society and so- cieties. Holidays are days of peace brought about by the distribution, sharing, and cooperation required to provide social justice. These days essentially renew our unity and solidar- ity. It reminds us of the significance of being a na- tion. It contributes to our societal solidarity. These days, which keep the society in unity, frater- nity, and solidarity, and unite people on the basis of respect and love, play a significant role in estab- lishing these feelings in the consciousness of indi- viduals in addition to the function of consolidating national and religious feelings and beliefs, keeping them fresh and alive. National holidays strengthen the ability to be a na- tion and to share the same fate, worries, and joys. Our religious holidays are days when people of the same religion enjoy unity, brotherhood, selfless re- spect and love. During these days, it is possible for the resentful to reconcile, for the feelings of enmity and hostility of families and individuals with grudge and hatred to turn into love, for the younger ones to show respect to the elders, for the elders to show love to the little ones, to visit the sick, to win the hearts of the chil- dren with small gifts to be given, and to reunite the kith and kin once more. SOCIAL LIFE 80 O ur women, who play significant roles in all aspects of social life, are indispensable ele- ments of our ancient heritage of culture and civilisation. It is a fact that a healthy society can be created where everyone has equal access to basic rights, opportunities and possibilities. Strong and prosperous societies are only possible with harmo- nious families consisting of content people. Based on these facts, Türkiye’s primary goal is to create policies that guarantee the socio-economic empowerment of women, to prevent all forms of discrimination and violence against them, which is carried out with the principle of “zero tolerance”, and to reflect equality between women and men in all major plans and policies. In this process, policies aiming to enable women and girls to participate in all spheres of social life with effective and strong identities are being imple- mented. Empowerment of women means the em- powerment of family and social structure. For this purpose, the General Directorate for the Status of Women operates under the Ministry of Family and Social Services. The country is well-represented at meetings and events focused on women held on international stages, demonstrating the value placed on improv- ing the status of women in crucial development ar- eas like education, employment, health and partici- pation in decision-making processes. The country's efforts to enhance women's empow- erment, full enjoyment of their rights, opportuni- ties, and possibilities, and effective combating of violence against women are expanding. Centres working on women’s issues, women’s rights, women’s entrepreneurship, women’s roles in families and women’s health have been founded. The number of “Women’s Problems Research and Application Centres” established in universities has reached 120. WOMAN AND SOCIETY The number of "Women's Issues Research and Implementation Centers" established at universities has reached 120. 82 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Legal Equality Everyone is treated equally before the law without discrimination on grounds of language, race, col- our, gender, political opinion, philosophical belief, religion, sect or other similar reasons, according to Article 10 of the 1982 Constitution. Women and men have equal rights. The state must ensure that this equality is implemented. Measures to be taken for this purpose cannot be interpreted as contrary to the principle of equality. Since 1986, Türkiye has been a party to the “Con- vention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrim- ination Against Women (CEDAW)”, which is one of the fundamental human rights conventions of the United Nations (UN) and the first convention to set international standards on women’s rights, and has positive obligations to realise equality between women and men. In this context, international obli- gations regarding the prevention of discrimination against women are meticulously fulfilled. Women and Education Article 4 of the Basic Law of National Education states that educational institutions are open to everyone without discrimination on the basis of language, race, gender and religion, and Article 8 states that equal opportunities and possibilities are provided to all men and women in education. As stated in Article 2 of the Primary Education and Education Law, primary education is compulsory for all citizens of both sexes and is free of charge in state schools. With the amendment made to the abovementioned Law in 2012, the compulsory ed- ucation period was regulated as 12 years, covering 4 years of primary school, 4 years of secondary school, and 4 years of high school education. According to the figures for the 2020/2021 academic year, the net schooling rate in the 3-5 age group in pre-school education was 28.35% in total, 28.12% for girls and 28.57% for boys. In the 4-5 age group, the rate was 36.79% in total, 36.50% for girls and 37.07% for boys. In the 5-year age group, the schooling rate was 56.89% in total, 56.34% for girls and 57.41% for boys. In the 2020-2021 academic year, the total net schooling rate at primary school level was 93.23%. It was 93.34% and 93.11% for boys and girls, respec- tively. In secondary school, the net schooling rates AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 83 were 88.85% in total and 88.95% and 88.74% for boys and girls, respectively. In the 2020-2021 academic year, the net schooling rate in secondary education was 87.79% in total, and 88.05% and 87.93% for boys and girls, respectively. The net schooling rate in higher education, which was 18.85% in total in 2005-2006, increased to 44.41% in the 2020-2021 academic year. For wom- en, this rate increased from 17.41% in 2005-2006 to 48.46% in 2020-2021 academic year. In the field of education, the Ministry of National Education (MEB) and other relevant institutions and organisations carry out activities such as Transported Primary, Secondary School and Sec- ondary Education Implementation, Scholarship Services and Conditional Education Assistance, Primary School Education Programme (İYEP), Lit- eracy Campaign. Women and Working Life Creating an effective model for Türkiye in the devel- opment of the labour market that supports wom- en’s entry and empowerment in the labour market is among the priorities of our country. As a matter of fact, important arrangements have been made at both legal and policy levels and effective projects and activities are being implemented. Important legal measures have been implement- ed to ensure equality between women and men in working life, to support women’s employment and to reconcile work and family life. The fundamental goal of the 11th Development Plan's (2019-2023) woman chapter was to prevent all types of discrimination against women, ensure that women benefit equally from rights, opportuni- ties, and possibilities in all areas of social life, and empower them. Measures such as supporting women’s businesses and women’s cooperatives, training women in line with the needs of the labour market, and orienting girls to professions in science, technology, engineer- ing and mathematics, taking into account emerging occupational fields, are included in order to reach these goals. Examining the position of women in the Turkish la- bour market reveals that, in 2021 (age 15+), the em- ployment rate for women was 28%, and the wom- en’s participation rate in the labour force was 32.8%, according to data from the Turkish Statistical Insti- tute (TURKSTAT). The Ministry of Family and Social Services, which is the national mechanism for women’s empower- ment in Türkiye, prepared and implemented the “Women’s Empowerment Strategy Document and Action Plan” covering the years 2018-2023. At the implementation level, the Ministry of Family and Social Services contributes to raising awareness on women’s employment and increasing women’s par- ticipation in the labour force through the “Imple- menting Gender Responsive Planning and Budg- eting in Türkiye Project”, “Young Women Building Their Future Project”, “Financial Literacy and Wom- en's Economic Empowerment Seminars”, “Engineer Girls of Türkiye Project”, “Women’s Empowerment through Cooperatives Project” and other activities carried out in cooperation with relevant institu- tions, organisations and private sector. 84 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Women and Health Statistics on quality of life in Türkiye have im- proved significantly in recent years. According to 2019 TURKSTAT data on life expectancy at birth, which is one of the indicators related to quality of life, life expectancy at birth is 75.9 for men and 81.3 for women. In Türkiye, Türkiye Demographic and Health Sur- veys (TNSA) have been conducted every five years on a nationally representative sample since 1963. The last of these surveys was conducted in 2018. According to 2018 TNSA results, the total fertility rate was 2.3. According to TURKSTAT data, the to- tal fertility rate was 1.76 in 2020. All maternal deaths in Türkiye have been moni- tored through the “Maternal Mortality Data Sys- tem” since 2007. The distribution of 2019 data by NUTS-1 shows that the maternal mortality rate varies between 2.9 per hundred thousand (Western Anatolia) and 24.4 per hundred thousand (Central Anatolia). Furthermore, according to the data retrieved from the Ministry of Health, the calculated maternal mortality rate in 2018 was 13.6 per hundred thou- sand; this rate was 13.1 I line with the data of 2019. One of the basic criteria for preventing maternal deaths and for women to benefit from basic health services as part of human rights is to benefit from prenatal care services. The rate of receiving prenatal care, which was 97.3% according to 2013 Türkiye Demographic and Health Surveys (TNSA), increased 96.5% in 2018 TNSA. Ac- cording to TNSA 2018, the most prevalent was doc- tor-provided care (93.6 %). Women in Participation in Politics and Decision-Making Mechanisms In the Republic of Türkiye, before many countries across the world, women gained the right to vote and be elected in local elections in 1930 and in par- liamentary elections in 1934, on an equal basis with men. In the 2002 General Elections, the number of fe- male deputies in the Parliament was 24, the female representation rate was 4.4%; in 2007, the number increased to 50 and the representation rate to 9.1%. In the General Elections of June 12, 2011, the num- ber of female deputies in the Parliament increased to 79, corresponding to 14.4%. In the June 7, 2015 General Elections, the number of female deputies was 98 and the representation rate was 17.82%. In the November 1, 2015 General Elections, the number of women deputies was 81, and the rate of women's representation in the Par- liament was 14.73%. Lastly, in the June 24, 2018 General Elections, the number of female deputies in the Parliament was 104, and the representation rate was 17.45%. In the Presidential Government System, which was put into practice with the June 24, 2018 election, 1 fe- male Minister (5.88%) serves in the cabinet. And also, women have key roles in the bureaucracy, in- cluding deputy minister, governor, district gover- nor, general manager, and ambassador. According to 2019 TURKSTAT data, life expectancy at birth is 75.9 for men and 81.3 for women. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 85 Combating Violence Against Women All the decisions taken and the policies imple- mented in the Republic of Türkiye regarding the advancement and empowerment of women have been shaped on the basis of its rich historical expe- rience. The women oriented activities are divided into two branches: “empowerment of women” and “prevent- ing discrimination and violence against women”. In addition to the fact that discrimination and vio- lence against women are one of the most prevalent human rights violations today; it is a phenomenon that seriously undermines women's dignity, physi- cal and mental integrity, families, societies and fu- ture generations. In our country, measures to eliminate violence against women have become a matter for which the state accepts responsibility by giving support to and collaboration from all relevant parties. In or- der to prevent violence against women and protect the victims, our state has waged an all-out struggle with the principle of “zero tolerance” by taking le- gal and administrative measures in all spheres. As part of this struggle, “Law No. 6284 on Protection of Family and Prevention of Violence against Women” was enacted. All women, children, and other family members who have been exposed to or are at dan- ger of being exposed to violence, as well as victims of unilateral stalking, are included in the scope of the Law without discrimination; the concept of vio- lence and its boundaries have been reframed. Moreover, national action plans are developed with a multifaceted, holistic and interdisciplinary ap- proach. The process, which started with the Nation- al Action Plan to Combat Violence against Women, which entered into force in 2007, laid the ground- work for the “Combating Violence against Women IV. National Action Plan”, which covers the years of 2021-2025, as well as the groundwork for current public policies aimed at combating violence against women. Along with combating violence against women in accordance with the plan and programmes, there are mechanisms in place for victims of violence to apply to and seek shelter. 86 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE For instance, “Violence Prevention and Monitor- ing Centres (ŞÖNİM)” established under Law No. 6284; are social service organisations that provide empowering and supportive consultancy, guidance, and monitoring services on a 24/7 basis for the pre- vention of violence and the effective implementa- tion of protective and preventive measures. Additionally, “Contact Points for Combating Vio- lence” were established within 386 Social Service Centres with the aim of providing services in coop- eration with public institutions and organizations in order to provide social service intervention and follow-up at the district level. In accordance with Law No. 6284, services such as follow-up and mon- itoring of measures for victims of violence, psycho- social support, consultancy, and guidance have be- gun to be provided. Since its establishment, a total of 1 million 166 thousand 216 people, including 969 thousand 331 women, 80 thousand 962 men, 115 thousand 923 children have benefited from ŞÖNİM. In addition to coordinating services, psychosocial, legal, educational, health support, and phone sup- port services are available in ŞÖNİM. A total of 613 institutional service units (81 ŞÖNİMs, 386 Social Service Centres, Contact Points for Combating Violence, 149 Women’s Guesthouses) throughout the country continue to be at the ser- vice of citizens on a 24/7 basis. Women’s Guesthouse Services Vocational activities are carried out in women’s guesthouses to help women and their children cope with the trauma they experience, become strong- er and maintain healthy relationships again in a non-violent environment. Women and children can be provided with shelter, psychosocial support, le- gal support, medical support, economic support, vocational support, educational support as well as nursery, guidance and counselling for their children as a result of vocational efforts and assessments. In 81 provinces, a total of 149 women guesthous- es with a capacity of 3.624, including 112 women’s guesthouses under the Ministry of Family and So- cial Services with a capacity of 2.779, 33 women’s shelters under local governments with 735 capacity, 3 women’s shelters under the Presidency of Migra- tion Management with 90 capacity, 1 women’s shel- ter under non-governmental organizations with 20 capacity serve across the country. In these guest- houses, a total of 520 thousand 690 people have been accommodated, including 328 thousand 276 women and 192 thousand 414 children accompany- ing them. Job clubs’ training is given every month within the scope of cooperation with the Turkish Employment Agency (İŞKUR) in order to ensure the participa- tion of women who receive service in employment and to support them to become self-sufficient. In addition, women can attend courses organized by İŞKUR, Municipalities and the Ministry of National Education in line with their interests and abilities. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 87 Educational activities are also carried out through Public Education Centres for women who want to complete their education or are illiterate. Furthermore, training activities are organized by the professional staff in the guesthouses to raise aware- ness of women and their children. Women receiv- ing services are provided with training on violence & violence types, gender equality, effective com- munication, effective parenting, women’s rights, recognizing and making sense of their feelings, etc.; and children with children’s rights, effective study techniques, time management, coping with stress, values education, awareness and awareness-rais- ing, etc. Regular trainings are provided in the fields of Women’s Empowerment within the Scope of Financial Literacy and Information Technologies, Establishment of Zero Waste Management System, and Addiction Awareness Programmes with Green Crescent. Child development professionals in the guesthouse conduct developmental evaluations on children, and children are supported with individual and group trainings suited for their developmental stag- es in the guesthouse's children's facilities. Another service for children is the nursery service. Children aged 0 to 6 who stay in the guesthouses have access to private kindergartens and day-care centres affiliated with the Ministry, as well as free nursery support. Women without a regular income and their school-age children are given an allow- ance, while women and children who are consid- ered to be in need are given clothing. SOCIAL LIFE 88 Social Services Services for Children A s a reflection of cultural and spiritual val- ues, the upbringing and safeguarding of children have always been a delicate top- ic in Turkish society. Social foundations built on the principles of collaboration and solidarity have shaped the vision and perception of children and childhood. The healthy growth and development of children have been one of the fundamental respon- sibilities of the family, society, and state. In Türkiye, the establishment of institutions that value children, protect them and uphold their rights dates back to the 19th century. In Turkish history, orphans received special attention, and the devel- opment of the child care system, the foundation of which was laid with the establishment of correc- tional institutions, followed a linear process parallel to developments in the international arena in gen- eral in the 20th century. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child emphasises the need to support and ensure children's rights to life, growth, safety, and partici- pation, despite the fact that families are primarily responsible for providing children with care and protection. The Ministry of Family and Social Services has been charged with coordinating the necessary efforts for the local implementation of the national policies and strategies determined to ensure the healthy de- velopment of children by protecting them from all kinds of neglect and abuse, carrying out social ser- vices and aid activities for children, ensuring coop- eration and coordination between relevant public institutions, organisations and voluntary organisa- tions in this field in order to evaluate the services for children holistically. The Ministry has recently taken the policy approach that prioritises the support of children, particularly with their families, to the forefront, and in this re- gard, social and economic supports have been pri- oritised to ensure the care and development of chil- dren with their families. SOCIAL SERVICES AND SOCIAL ASSISTANCE 90 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE A similar approach has been adopted for children in need of protection. Moreover, in recent years, particular emphasis has been placed on the expan- sion of foster family services across the country and on care home models, which are considered the most similar to the care provided in a family environment. Dormitories and orphanages, where many children are accommodated, were closed, and care homes for children and child homes buildings complex (ÇES) model, which are home-type boarding units that are similar to the family environment and more conducive to the psychological and spiritual development of children, have been adopted. In this regard, while there were 21 thousand children in 186 dormitory-type places and orphanages in 2002, as of March 2022, there are 13,530 children in a total of 1,370 institutions, including 112 child homes buildings complex, 66 Child Support Cen- tres (ÇODEM), and 1,192 child homes. As of March 2022, 144,892 children benefit from the “Social and Economic Support (SED) Service”, which is one of the services provided to ensure the healthy development of children in a family en- vironment and integrity without being placed in institutional care. The number of children cared for by foster families is 8,585, while the number of children benefiting from adoption services is 18,487. In 2018, "Mobile Social Service Units for Children" were launched, providing protective and preven- tive assistance to children at risk. More than 15,000 schools, particularly those in disadvantaged re- gions of cities, are partnered with these units; more than 79 thousand children and families were interviewed in 81 provinces, with the units estab- lished to identify children at risk who need social service involvement. Within the scope of the support offered for young people who have received training in public insti- tutions and organisations as well as the private sector to achieve their career goals, more than 58,000 young people trained under the protection of the state have found employment in the public sector. Services for Disabled and Elderly People In order to enable disabled and elderly people to par- ticipate in all aspects of life and to remove obstacles to their social inclusion, the Ministry of Family and Social Services adopts a "rights-based" approach. In this regard, a holistic policy and service provision is pursued with a rights-based approach in many so- cial service areas, from accessibility to employment, from education to economic security, from social assistance to inclusion in social life, from care ser- vices to family support services, so that people with disabilities and the elderly can continue living inde- pendently without leaving their social environment. In this direction, a significant step has been taken in the field of disability with Law No. 5378 on Disabled People adopted in 2005. With this Law and the fol- "Mobile Child Social Service Units", which provide protective and preventive services for children at risk, was put into operation in 2018. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 91 lowing regulations, necessary efforts were exerted in all areas, from care services to healthcare, from education to employment, from the right to travel free of charge to tax reductions. For the first time in Türkiye, a law for people with disabilities with 1,500 articles was developed with the aforemen- tioned Law and its sub-regulations. In line with their age, gender, and level of disabil- ity, we continue to provide care services to people with disabilities who require institutional care at organisations or private care centres licensed by the Ministry of Family and Social Services, with payment of care costs. In this regard, as of March 2022, more than 32 thousand disabled people have been provided with residential care services in 400 barrier-free care centres. It is being expanded nationwide with 130 Barri- er-free Daytime Living Centres for disabled peo- ple, with at least one centre in each province. Thus, disabled people's self-care and social life abilities are developed, allowing them to become active members of social life. Additionally, services are offered to the disabled at the Houses of Hope, also known as house-like so- cial services, which were founded in 2008, adopt- ing a community-based care service approach and has 148 of them as of March 2022. 4 to 6 disabled people are cared for in these houses, which were chosen as apartments in the neighbourhood envi- ronment, under the supervision of caregivers and professional staff. In addition to nursing homes, In-Home Care Assis- tance is provided to disabled, economically disad- vantaged individuals who require care. In this re- gard, as of March 2022, our Ministry has provided in-home care assistance of 70 billion TL to 532,337 people. In the field of disabled care services, "Home Care Support Service" is offered if the families of disa- bled people who get in-home care but are unable to use home care support or day/boarding care ser- vices need assistance with the disabled person's personal care. Home Care Support Service is a type of care that is given by the personnel of official care and rehabilitation facilities to the address of the disabled person who needs care on the days and times determined at home. Approximately 2.5 million disabled people have been registered in the National Data System of Dis- ability as of 2018, based on administrative records and the Medical Board Reports of Disability. Efforts aimed at the employment of the disabled ensure the integration of disabled individuals into society. In this regard, the number of disabled gov- ernment officials appointed before 2002 was 5,777, but this figure has increased to 65,662 today. The fundamental approach in the field of elderly care in our country is to ensure that the elderly, along with their relatives, experience the ageing process in an atmosphere conducive to active and 92 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE healthy ageing. In this regard, efforts are exerted to improve the quality of life of the elderly by en- suring that they effectively exercise their rights in all areas, including care, healthcare, employment, and accessibility. In 2016, our Ministry launched the Elderly Support Programme (YADES), which facilitates the lives of those in need of bio-psycho-social care by provid- ing the necessary care in their homes in order to safeguard and support elderly individuals over 65 who reside in our country and require social ser- vices. Within the scope of the initiative, a variety of integrated care service models, including in-home care, day-care, healthcare at home, moral support, and volunteer activities, were developed. As of March 2022, our Ministry provides services to more than 26,000 senior citizens who need res- idential care in 451 nursing homes countrywide, 165 of which are public, 267 of which are private, and 19 other public institutions (Ministry of Na- tional Education, Municipalities). In addition, with the Elderly Living Centre Project initiated by our Ministry in 2012, 8 Elderly Living Centres provide services to 25 elderly people in a home- like environment. In the Day-care Living Centres, which now total 32 for elderly people, services like psycho-social rehabilitation, day-care, and home support are provided. While 4,952 elderly people were cared for in 63 of- ficial nursing homes in our country in 2002, as of March 2022, 12,901 elderly people were cared for in 165 official nursing homes affiliated with the Ministry of Family and Social Services, including the Darülaceze Institution; 1,688 elderly people were cared for in nursing homes owned by 19 other public institutions. In 2002, there were 22 private nursing homes for the elderly; as of March 2022, this figure has increased to 267, and 11,598 seniors are receiving care. Accessibility is a crucial issue for everyone, nota- bly for people with disabilities and the elderly. It is acknowledged that accessibility is a must for en- AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 93 suring that people with disabilities and the elderly can exercise their rights and engage fully in all as- pects of life. In addition to being a prerequisite for the exercise of all rights, accessibility is also a fun- damental right. It is encouraged to disseminate the practices in accessibility in the fields of activity of all stakeholders with the "Accessibility Monitoring and Inspection System" developed by our Ministry and the "Accessibility Evaluation Module" (ER- DEM), which provides the opportunity to make self-evaluation in order to make buildings acces- sible, the national accessibility standards we set, the accessibility projects we support, workhous- es, workshops, competitions, accessibility awards and programmes we organise. In order to strengthen the participation of disabled and elderly individuals in social life, income sup- port payments are made within the scope of free travel with private buses and sea transport vehi- cles through municipalities. Family and Community Services In Social Service Centres (SHM), which started to serve in 2013, protective, preventive, supportive, improving services, guidance and counselling ser- vices are offered for children, youth, women, men, disabled, elderly, relatives of martyrs, veterans, families and the society, additionally, via the Fam- ily Social Support Programme (ASDEP), inclusive access to services is provided in order to enable families to benefit from related services, provide guidance and improve living conditions. With the ASDEP started in 2017, 3.9 million households have been reached as of March 2022. 256 "Family Support Centres (ADEM)" and 34 "So- cial Solidarity Centres (SODAM)" were put into service to support the psycho-social, socio-cul- tural, professional and personal development of women in many parts of our country, especially in South-eastern Anatolia and Eastern Anatolia regions. "Family Counselling" refers to the service provided to couples to help them manage the processes as- sociated with issues of domestic communication, relationships, etc., in a healthy way. This service is provided free of charge by expert personnel in Pro- vincial Directorates of Family and Social Services and Social Service Centres in 81 provinces. The Pre-Marriage Education Programme, Fami- ly Education Programme and Family Counselling Programme of the Ministry of Family and Social Did you know that Türkiye was among the first countries to sign the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) in 2007 and is the focal institution of the UNCRPD? DID YOU KNOW? 256 "Family Support Centers (ADEM)" and 34 "Social Solidarity Centers (SODAM)" were put into service. 94 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Services for couples who are going to get married are carried out to ensure a healthy and long-lasting family is established. Within the scope of the "Fam- ily Counselling" service, 79 thousand applications were answered; within the framework of the Fami- ly Education Programme (AEP), the "Drug Use Risk and Protection from Substance Addiction" module and the "Addiction Prevention Training Programme of Türkiye" in cooperation with the Green Crescent, 904 thousand people received awareness training regarding the "Fight against Drugs". Since 2014, psycho-social support teams have inter- vened in 157 disasters and emergencies with 8 thou- sand 548 professional personnel in order for the individuals, families and society to return to their normal lives as soon as possible and to be affected psychologically in the least possible way. When the child population ratio in Türkiye is con- sidered, it is observed that 1,079,842 children were born in Türkiye in 2021, of which 51.3% are male, and 48.7% are female. In Türkiye, 67.6% of people refer to their families as their source of happiness. In addition, TAYA (Research on Family Structure in Türkiye) is regularly conducted every five years on the subject of family, and its results are shared with scientific circles and public institutions. Services for Women In addition to the services provided for women un- der previous titles, Women's Cooperatives are being strengthened to increase women's productivity. In this regard, under the coordination of the Minis- try of Family and Social Services, the "Cooperation Protocol on Strengthening Women's Cooperatives" signed on October 30, 2018, with the Ministry of Trade and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry was put into effect, and the "Women's Cooperatives Working Group" was formed in 81 provinces. The efforts carried out in 81 provinces since 2019 have supported the establishment of 530 new women's cooperatives. Social Assistance Türkiye develops and maintains its social assis- tance programmes on the basis of need, without any political, ideological, philosophical or religious discrimination, within the framework of the princi- ple of social justice. Social assistance programmes implemented on this basis are presented as "public service" in accordance with the principle of a so- cial state, which finds its expression in the Consti- tution within the framework of objective criteria. Since 2003, "regular-inclusive" social assistance pro- grammes with certain basic principles, benefit crite- ria and amounts have been established, and services have been developed. In line with the provisions of the legislation, more than 40 social assistance programmes are carried out through 1,003 "Social Assistance and Solidarity Foundations" established in each province and dis- trict and "Provincial Directorates of the Ministry of Family and Social Services". The ongoing social as- sistance programmes are classified as regular and temporary family benefits, shelter and food aid, dis- ability and elderly benefits, health benefits, educa- tion aids, and project supports. Women's Cooperative AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 95 Shared Welfare in a Growing Türkiye In the 2002-2021 period, increasing amounts of re- sources were transferred to families in need, with the growth achieved with the successes in the field of economy. In this process, services for citizens in need were developed, particularly by develop- ing inclusive and thematic social assistance pro- grammes. In addition to the progress achieved in the field of social assistance, our country has also advanced in human development. According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) data, our country was at the "Medium Human Devel- opment" level in 2002 but has reached the "High Human Development" level since 2009; it succeed- ed to be in the "Very High Human Development" level for the first time in its history in 2018, and in the "Very High Human Development" category for the second time in 2019. In the index, which is the measure of progress in human development, Tür- kiye has recorded an increase of 40.7% in the last 29 years. Another issue that reveals our basic approach in the delivery of social assistance is the employment of social assistance beneficiaries who are able to work as soon as possible. As part of the long-term anti-poverty strategy, social assistance is used as a tool to reduce poverty. In this framework, so- cial assistance beneficiaries who have been able to work are registered with İŞKUR (Turkish Em- ployment Agency) and have benefited from em- ployment-generating activities since 2010. If the individuals encouraged to work are employed, one-time employment support is provided up to 1/3 of the gross minimum wage. Thus, the integra- tion between the labour market and social services is strengthened. Since 2010, social assistance beneficiaries who are able to work have been registered with İŞKUR and benefited from employment- enhancing activities. 96 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Within the scope of combating the negative ef- fects of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Pandemic "Social Support Programme" was implemented, an "emergency state" was declared, the amounts of certain social assistance programmes were increased, decisions were taken to increase peri- odic shares, and additional periodic shares were transferred to Social Assistance and Solidarity Foundations. The assistance, which was offered to the house- holds in need under the name of the Pandemic Social Support Programme (Phase I, Phase II, Phase III) within the framework of the proce- dures determined by the Social Assistance and Solidarity Encouragement Fund, was delivered through the central payment method. In addi- tion, with the "We are Self-Sufficient, Türkiye, National Solidarity Campaign", the state and the nation collaborated, and additional support was provided to households experiencing temporary poverty due to the pandemic. On the other hand, the "Full Closure Social Assistance Programme" was also implemented during the period of full closure between April 29, 2021, and May 17, 2021. Social Assistance During the COVID-19 Pandemic AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 97 It is critical to ensure that information and com- munication technologies are used to provide fast- er and higher-quality social support services. Ad- vanced information systems are employed in the implementation and management of social assis- tance programmes in Türkiye. The most impor- tant among these advanced information systems is the "Integrated Social Assistance Information System (BSYBS)", which is highlighted as an ex- emplary system worldwide. The system allows the operation of the entire procedure from receiv- ing the applications of poor and needy people to the payments of aid, as well as the provision of aid payments and the keeping of records. Thanks to the system, social assistance services have been made transparent and accountable, and problems such as duplication and lack of co- ordination have been eliminated. Thus, citizens were relieved of the burden of proving their need- iness and the aid application procedure, which had previously taken 15-20 days, was shortened to a time period expressed in minutes. In addi- tion, the "ALO 144 Social Assistance Line" enables people to have first-hand information about so- cial assistance. Strong IT Infrastructure in Social Assistance SOCIAL LIFE 98 A lmost every country in the world has been impacted by migration, notably during the second half of the 20th century, which wit- nessed widespread demographic shifts. In fact, it is known that more than 175 million people have mi- grated in the last fifty years. According to the most recent data from the International Organisation for Migration, 281 million individuals have migrat- ed around the world, which is roughly 3.6% of the world's population. Migration is defined as the movement and reloca- tion of individuals or communities from one set- tlement to another, from one country to another, to spend all or part of their lives for voluntary or com- pulsory reasons.Armed conflicts, natural disasters, political or economic motives, and other factors force millions of individuals to leave the countries where they were born and raised. Therefore, the concept of migration includes refugees, asylum seekers, economic migrants, irregular migrants, and groups of individuals displaced for a variety of causes. Migration is closely related to politics, the economy, and social and cultural life. In particular, interna- tional migration affects multiple states simulta- neously. On the one hand, this kind of migration contributes to the labour force of the destination country and introduces diverse skills and new ide- as, but on the other hand, it might result in a loss of qualified labour in the countries of departure. Therefore, it affects both the countries migrants leave behind and the countries they settle in and shapes the interactions between these countries and leaves enduring traces. If migration movements are well-managed, they might have positive outcomes, but if they are not, they might have a number of negative outcomes, including the rise of human rights violations and the threat to public order and security. Accordingly, it has become essential to develop efficient migra- tion management that supports economic develop- ment, maintains public security, and seeks to safe- guard migrants' human rights. MIGRATION AND ASYLUM-SEEKERS 100 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Due to its geographical and strategic location, our country has served as the final destination for large-scale migratory movements, including mass asylum movements, and has been home to millions of migrants throughout history. Türkiye serves as a bridge between several Middle Eastern and Asian countries in its east and south, where conflicts and instability are prevalent, and European countries in its west, where welfare and human rights are highly valued. Especially in recent years, Türkiye's rising econom- ic and political power and stable structure have made it a destination for both regular and irregular migration movements. This situation underlines the impacts of migration on Türkiye's economic, so- ciocultural, and demographic structure, as well as its public order and security. The Pre-Republican Period It is well known that throughout the Ottoman Empire, migrants were treated with tolerance and without regard to their ethnicity or religion. The following are the major collective and individual movements for asylum that emerged during this period: • In 1492, tens of thousands of Jews were trans- ported to the Ottoman Empire after being res- cued by ships from Spain. • Following the Thököly Uprising in 1672, the printing pioneer İbrahim Müteferrika, the firefighting pioneer Count Ödön Széchenyi (Széchenyi Pasha), and in 1699, the Hungarian King Emeric Thököly and his wife sought ref- uge in the Ottoman Empire. • In 1709, the Swedish King Charles sought refuge in the Ottoman Empire with a group of about 2,000 people. • After the 1718 Treaty of Passarowitz, Hungarian King Ferenc Rákóczi II sought refuge in the Ot- toman Empire. • In 1841, Prince Adam Czartoryski, one of the leaders of the 1830 Polish Revolution and the founder of today's Polonezköy, sought refuge in the Ottoman Empire. • In 1849, Prince Lajos Kossuth, who lost the Hungarian War of Independence of 1848, and about 3,000 Hungarians came to the Ottoman Empire. • According to Russian sources, between 1858 and 1864, approximately 493,000 Caucasian Muslims sought refuge in the Ottoman Empire. • Although statistics vary, in 1864, the Ottoman Empire welcomed about a million Caucasian refugees who were trying to flee the Russian army, and they were settled in the Balkans and various regions of Anatolia. • Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, Wrangel, along with approximately 135,000 people, requested asylum from the Ottoman Empire. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 101 The Republican Period During and after the foundation of the Republic, mass migration movements toward our country continued. Following is a summary of the most con- crete instances of these movements: • Between 1922 and 1938, 384 thousand people from Greece, • Between 1923 and 1945, 800 thousand people from the Balkans, • Between 1933 and 1945, 800 people from Ger- many, • In 1988, 51,542 people from Iraq after the Hal- abja massacre, • In 1989, 345 thousand people from Bulgaria, • In 1991, 467,489 people from Iraq after the First Gulf War, • Between 1992 and 1998, 20 thousand people from Bosnia, • In 1999, 17,746 people after the incidents oc- curred in Kosovo, • In 2001, 10,500 people from Macedonia came to our country. Developments in Our Migration Law Prior to the Law on Foreigners and Interna- tional Protection The earliest general regulatory document regard- ing migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers is Set- tlement Law No. 2510, dated June 14, 1934. The law regulates the resettlement of those who have ar- rived in our country through asylum and migration movements. Law No. 2510 was repealed in 2006 and substituted with Law No. 5543. Various types of migrants, including free migrants, settled migrants, individual migrants, and mass migrants, are specified in Settlement Law No. 5543. This definition, however, has remained discon- nected from the concept of migration, which in the current context includes both regular and irregular migration as well as international protection zones since it envisages a constrained structure with cog- nate-oriented regulations. The Turkish Passport Law No. 5682 and Law on Residence and Travel of Foreigners in Türkiye No. 5683, which were enact- ed in 1950, governed the conduct of business and transactions regarding foreigners not covered by the Settlement Law. The first regulatory document in our domestic law on international protection (asylum) is "Regulation No. 22127 and dated November 30, 1994, on the Procedures and Principles related to Possible Pop- ulation Movements and Aliens Arriving in Türkiye either as Individuals or in Groups Wishing to Seek Asylum either from Türkiye or Requesting Resi- dence Permission in order to Seek Asylum from An- other Country." The regulation includes provisions regarding the determination of the procedures and principles to be applied to foreigners who come to Türkiye either as individuals or in groups for asy- lum and the determination of the responsible insti- tutions. The absence of any legal legislation perceived in this area has been attempted to be remedied mostly by administrative regulations, despite the fact that it is apparent that provisions regarding migration are partially and irregularly regulated in various laws. Law on Foreigners and International Protection In line with these developments, transparent and participatory legal reform efforts, which foresee radical changes in order to manage the migration 102 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE area better, have been exerted, taking into account our country's role as a host country in the migration movements of our age. Considering the inevita- ble nature of migration, attempts have been made to take a human-centred stance that upholds the rights of all migrants, particularly those who belong to disadvantaged groups. It has been challenging to completely uphold our constitutional and international obligations due to the lack of a comprehensive law regulating foreign- ers and international protection in all aspects. This has resulted in administrative regulations eliminat- ing gaps in required areas. In addition, the lack of comprehensive regulation at the legislative level has necessitated extensive legis- lative efforts. Another factor in the enactment of the law is the European Union's (EU) harmonisation process. During the negotiation process with the EU, the "The Turkish National Action Plan for the Adoption of the European Union Acquis in the field of Asy- lum and Migration" (Action Plan on Asylum and Migration) was prepared as part of "Chapter 24" ti- tled "Justice, Freedom and Security" and in line with the "National Programme of Türkiye for the Adop- tion of the European Union Acquis dated 2003." The plan is one of the fundamental regulations of legal regulation efforts on migration and interna- tional protection. The "Bureau on Development and Implementation of the Legislation on Asylum and Migration and Administrative Capacity (Asylum and Migration Bureau)" was established under the Ministry of Interior to make efforts to establish the necessary legal and institutional structure included in the National Programme. Law No. 6458 on Foreigners and International Pro- tection, which serves as the framework for the de- velopment of a migration management structure with a holistic perspective in Türkiye, was adopted as a result of the efforts. The following are the main topics of the Law enact- ed in order to regulate the procedures and princi- ples regarding the scope and implementation of the protection to be provided to foreigners requesting protection from Türkiye, as well as their entry into, their stay in and departure from Türkiye: • Within the scope of this law, an efficient and systematic structure has been established for visa and residence permit procedures, and reg- ulations have been developed to decrease bu- reaucratic procedures and informality. • Law No. 6458 introduced provisions for the val- idation of foreigners' work permits in the place of their residence permits, and the bureaucratic procedures of both foreigners and employers were significantly reduced. Foreign students' residence permits and employment rights were for the first time regulated in detail by law. For- eign students in Türkiye are allowed to work during their studies, and those who complete their studies are entitled to get a one-year exten- sion on their residence permit. Thus, the door is opened for foreigners to remain in Türkiye who will contribute to a qualified labour force. AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 103 • For the first time, the rights of stateless persons who are not bound to any state by citizenship connections are specified in the law, and a "Stateless Person Identity Document," which replaces a residence permit, is issued to people who are proven to be stateless. • Residence permits are provided to foreigners who have been victims of human trafficking or with strong suspicions that they have been vic- tims so that they may recover from the impact of their experiences. This regulation, which is crucial for the protection of these individuals, has been included in Turkish law for the first time. • The law clearly states that foreigners cannot be returned to a country where they will be perse- cuted. Thus, the principle of non-refoulement, one of the fundamental principles of interna- tional law and refugee law, was defined in law for the first time. • Types of international protection are defined in accordance with the 1951 Geneva Convention. In this regard, the definition of "refugee" in Ar- ticle 1A (2) of the 1951 Geneva Convention was transferred to the Law on Foreigners and Inter- national Protection; due to the geographical re- striction that our country has placed in the 1951 Geneva Convention, the ambiguity caused by the definition of "asylum seeker" used for peo- ple coming from outside of Europe and seeking asylum has been put an end to, and these peo- ple are now referred as "conditional refugees". • On the other hand, foreigners who do not meet the criteria for refugee or conditional refugee status but who are covered by the principle of non-refoulement as a requirement of the hu- man rights conventions to which we are par- ties, notably the European Convention on Hu- man Rights, due to the risk of death, exposure to torture, or being threatened in conflicts, are granted "subsidiary protection." • In accordance with international standards, special protection mechanisms are established, particularly for unaccompanied minors, people with disabilities, the elderly, pregnant women, single mothers and fathers with children and people with special needs who have been the victims of torture, sexual assault, or other se- vere psychological, physical, or sexual violence. • The establishment of receiving and accommo- dation centres in order to meet the housing and other needs of persons with international pro- tection status, particularly those with special needs, has been mandated by law, and this field has been given a legal basis through adminis- trative regulations. • The harmonisation envisaged in the law and in the works of the Presidency of Migration Man- agement is neither assimilation nor integra- tion. It is the harmonisation that occurs when migrants and society understand each other on a voluntary basis. One of the important developments regarding mi- gration management is the establishment of the Directorate General of Migration Management (its status changed to that of a Presidency on October 29, 2021) in order to "exert efforts on the develop- ment of legislation and administrative capacity re- garding migration, as well as to monitor and coordi- nate the implementation of policies and strategies determined by the President." Temporary Protection and the Case of Syria Temporary protection may be provided to foreigners who have been forced to flee their countries, who are unable to return, who have reached or crossed our borders in large numbers, and who cannot be evalu- ated individually to find urgent and temporary solu- tions and protection. The "temporary protection" system to be provided in the event of a mass influx, which has never existed 104 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 3.763.447 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 19.05.2022 * 19.05.2022 tarihi itibariyle 0 14.237 224.655 1.519.286 2.503.549 2.834.441 3.426.786 3.363.192 3.576.370 3.641.370 3.373.369 before, allowed for the development of the Law on Foreigners and International Protection, the Turkish migration law. Due to the escalation of the humanitarian crisis in Syria, the migration of 300 to 400 Syrians towards the Cilvegozü border gate in the Yayladağı district of Hatay province on April 29, 2011, marked the begin- ning of a mass population movement from Syria to Türkiye. Since April 2011, Türkiye has experienced sudden, massive influxes of people who were com- pelled to flee Syria. The refugees in question are given temporary protection without any conditions due to the severity of the situation in Syria and the fact that the prerequisites for the refugees' safe return to their countries have not yet been met. Throughout its history, our country has encountered various migratory movements, including large-scale asylum movements, and has welcomed millions of migrants. It will carry on this tradition with the Law on Foreigners and International Protection owing to its dynamic organisation that has the expertise, is open to innovation and international cooperation, and closely monitors recent information and developments. At this point, the regulations and efforts made improve Türki- ye's determination to become an exemplary country in the field of migration and international protection, as well as the rights-based protection area in Türkiye. Türkiye has evolved into a significant target country as well as a transit country over time as a result of its expanding economy and the political unrest in the region. Our country, which is facing a significant mi- gratory wave, has been hosting the greatest number of migrants in the world for the past eight years. The problems caused by migration are too extensive for countries to solve alone, and the prevention of this phenomenon requires the international community to act together in a responsible and cooperative man- ner. Türkiye supports a fair and equal distribution of the burden and responsibility for the global issue of mi- gration among all members of the international com- munity. In this regard, our country, which adheres to the notion that issues should be addressed at their root, concentrates on the development and humani- tarian relief, both bilaterally and through internation- al organisations. The fact that migrants and refugees are not subject to discrimination and have easy access to areas such as education and healthcare is another issue that our country highlights globally. Data from the Directorate of Migration. YILLARA GÖRE GEÇİCİ KORUMA KAPSAMINDAKİ SURİYELİLER SYRIANS UNDER TEMPORARY PROTECTION BY YEARS As of 19.05.2022 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 105 Provınce No Provinces Number Of Registered Syrians Provincial Population Total Number Of People Living In The Province-The Percentage Of Registered Syrians To The Total Number Of People In The Province Province No Provinces Number Of Registered Syrians Provincial Population Total Number Of People Living In The Province-The Percentage Of Registered Syrians To The Total Number Of People In The Province TOTAL 3.762.686 84.680.273 4,44% TOTAL 3.762.686 84.680.273 4,44% 1 ADANA 256.468 2.263.373 11,33% 42 KAHRAMAN- MARAŞ 95.966 1.171.298 8,19% 2 ADIYAMAN 23.206 632.148 3,67% 43 KARABÜK 1.736 249.287 0,70% 3 AFYON 12.545 744.179 1,69% 44 KARAMAN 826 258.838 0,32% 4 AĞRI 1.283 524.644 0,24% 45 KARS 190 281.077 0,07% 5 AKSARAY 4.214 429.069 0,98% 46 KASTAMONU 2.711 375.592 0,72% 6 AMASYA 1.425 335.331 0,42% 47 KAYSERİ 83.526 1.434.357 5,85% 7 ANKARA 100.502 5.747.325 1,75% 48 KIRIKKALE 1.963 275.968 0,71% 8 ANTALYA 4.185 2.619.832 0,16% 49 KIRKLARELİ 1.035 366.363 0,28% 9 ARDAHAN 124 94.932 0,13% 50 KIRŞEHİR 2.040 242.944 0,84% 10 ARTVİN 72 169.548 0,04% 51 KİLİS 107.214 145.826 73,52% 11 AYDIN 8.472 1.134.031 0,75% 52 KOCAELİ 56.619 2.033.441 2,78% 12 BALIKESİR 5.052 1.250.610 0,40% 53 KONYA 123.627 2.277.017 5,43% 13 BARTIN 572 201.711 0,28% 54 KÜTAHYA 2.008 578.640 0,35% 14 BATMAN 16.032 626.319 2,56% 55 MALATYA 32.083 808.692 3,97% 15 BAYBURT 144 85.042 0,17% 56 MANİSA 14.239 1.456.626 0,98% 16 BİLECİK 667 228.334 0,29% 57 MARDİN 91.817 862.757 10,64% 17 BİNGÖL 1.150 288.112 0,41% 58 MERSİN 242.935 1.891.145 12,85% 18 BİTLİS 1.156 352.277 0,33% 59 MUĞLA 11.695 1.021.141 1,15% 19 BOLU 4.505 320.014 1,41% 60 MUŞ 1.697 405.228 0,42% 20 BURDUR 9.110 273.716 3,33% 61 NEVŞEHİR 13.814 308.003 4,49% 21 BURSA 184.363 3.147.818 5,86% 62 NİĞDE 7.148 363.725 1,97% 22 ÇANAKKALE 5.106 557.276 0,92% 63 ORDU 1.129 760.872 0,15% 23 ÇANKIRI 815 196.515 0,41% 64 OSMANİYE 42.675 553.012 7,72% 24 ÇORUM 3.471 526.282 0,66% 65 RİZE 1.317 345.662 0,38% 25 DENİZLİ 14.060 1.051.056 1,34% 66 SAKARYA 15.741 1.060.876 1,48% 26 DİYARBAKIR 24.562 1.791.373 1,37% 67 SAMSUN 10.297 1.371.274 0,75% 27 DÜZCE 1.688 400.976 0,42% 68 SİİRT 4.780 331.980 1,44% 28 EDİRNE 1.094 412.115 0,27% 69 SİNOP 439 218.408 0,20% 29 ELAZIĞ 13.237 588.088 2,25% 70 SİVAS 3.642 636.121 0,57% 30 ERZİNCAN 279 237.351 0,12% 71 ŞANLIURFA 430.003 2.143.020 20,07% 31 ERZURUM 1.184 756.893 0,16% 72 ŞIRNAK 14.903 546.589 2,73% 32 ESKİŞEHİR 6.429 898.369 0,72% 73 TEKİRDAĞ 12.600 1.113.400 1,13% 33 GAZİANTEP 462.897 2.130.432 21,73% 74 TOKAT 1.223 602.567 0,20% 34 GİRESUN 457 450.154 0,10% 75 TRABZON 3.658 816.684 0,45% 35 GÜMÜŞHANE 250 150.119 0,17% 76 TUNCELİ 74 83.645 0,09% 36 HAKKARİ 5.098 278.218 1,83% 77 UŞAK 3.257 373.182 0,87% 37 HATAY 433.124 1.670.712 25,92% 78 VAN 2.168 1.141.015 0,19% 38 IĞDIR 81 203.159 0,04% 79 YALOVA 3.883 291.001 1,33% 39 ISPARTA 8.226 445.678 1,85% 80 YOZGAT 5.529 418.500 1,32% 40 İSTANBUL 542.606 15.840.900 3,43% 81 ZONGULDAK 724 589.684 0,12% 41 İZMİR 149.839 4.425.789 3,39% DISTRIBUTION OF SYRIANS UNDER TEMPORARY PROTECTION BY PROVINCES Data from the Directorate of Migration. *As of 28.04.2022 106 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE Civil Society and Its History in Türkiye C ivil society, which is defined as the whole of the structures that strengthen social ties by enabling individuals and groups to express themselves within the state, participate in mana- gement processes and contribute to the understan- ding of living together, has also made important contributions to the development of pluralism, so- lidarity, human rights and democracy in the world. NGOs, which have become an indispensable part of modern democracies became a third sector betwe- en the state and the private sector. NGOs are beco- ming widespread day by day with the support of international organisations such as the European Union, the World Bank and the United Nations. It is important to know the historical development of the concept in order to make sense of civil society in Türkiye. On the basis of the phenomenon of solidarity in the Republic of Türkiye and the aim of contributing to social well-being, the history of the concept of civil society has been inherited from its ancient ances- tors in terms of foundation understanding. The phenomenon of solidarity, which continues to de- velop on this precious heritage and exists in the es- sence of the Turkish nation, has entered into its cul- tural codes and has been presented countless times in history, continues to develop with the awareness of social responsibility, which provides the continu- ation of the past-present-future line, the symbol of material and spiritual power, unity and solidarity. In the Ottoman Empire, which reigned for years on three continents and approached many different identities with tolerance, organisations such as foundations and guilds, which can be considered the first examples of civil society, were supported with devotion. CIVIL SOCIETY AND NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS With the transition to multi-party political life in Türkiye, significant progress has been made in the field of civil society. 108 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE With the declaration of the 2nd Constitutional Era, the right to organise in the modern sense was re- gulated for the first time within the scope of the Law on Associations dated 1909. With the Law on Associations, various associations such as "Scouts' Group, Association for National Defence, Turkish Hearths, Turkish Homeland Association, Farmers' Association, Artisans' Association, Red Crescent Association, Navy Association" were formed, some of which have lasted to the present day. With the partial amendments made during the Republican period, the Law on Associations was accepted as the main legal text regulating civil life during the first 15 years of the Republic. In 1938, the New Law on Associations was adopted. With the transition to multi-party political life in Türkiye, significant progress has been made in the field of civil society. Since 1946, associations have been granted the right to establish a society wit- hout the permission of the state and independently of the administration. Trade unions, which are con- sidered a means of civil organisation, were regula- ted by the first Trade Unions Law enacted in 1947. Another form of organisation, Political Parties, was regulated by the Law on Political Parties adopted in 1965. In the field of civil society, Non-Governmental Or- ganisations (NGOs) come to the forefront as actors who voluntarily perform their activities without profit aimed at social benefit. Although it is discus- sed that there are many organisations within the definition and structure of NGOs, foundations and associations constitute a significant part of NGOs in our country. Türkiye has entered an intensive reform process with its candidacy for full membership in the European Union. In this process, the scope of fun- damental rights and freedoms has been further expanded in many areas, and reforms have been made to strengthen and secure existing regulations in areas such as democracy, the rule of law, freedom of thought and expression and human rights. As a result of the reforms made, the Law on Associati- ons No. 2908 was repealed in 2004, and the Law on Associations No. 5253, which includes more liberal AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 109 regulations on issues such as association formati- on, membership, freedom of association activities, reduction of sanctions and bureaucracy imposed on associations, was put into effect, thus significant steps were taken in the field of freedom of associa- tion. With this understanding, the Department of Asso- ciations was established and put into operation in 2003, and the works and procedures of non-gover- nmental organisations were taken from the police units and started to be carried out by a "civil" unit. Many administrative and legal regulations have also been implemented to support this structuring. In this context, in order to create an organisational structure suitable for both quantitative and quali- tative development as a result of these reforms in the field of civil society, the Department of Asso- ciations, which completed its mission with Presi- dential Decree No. 17 promulgated in the Official Gazette dated September 13, 2018, was closed and the General Directorate of Civil Society Relations was established. Non-governmental organisations in Türkiye are secured by international conventions, the Cons- titution of the Republic of Türkiye and national legislation. As a result of increasing digitalisation efforts, non-governmental organisations continue their activities freely in national and international channels in line with their common interests in many different areas such as culture, education, health, professional solidarity and rights advoca- cy. Basic Statistical Data on NGOs in Türkiye As part of the steps taken toward demilitarisation, significant changes in the sphere of civil society in the increasingly liberated environment have oc- curred, including a notable increase in the number of associations, association memberships, and as- sociation revenues. There are 121,968 active associations in Türkiye, with 8,593,630 members of various types of as- sociations, primarily professional and solidarity associations (38,145), sports associations (27,742), education research associations (6,192), and cul- ture, art, and tourism associations (5,911). (The statistical data includes sports clubs that fall un- der Sports Clubs and Sports Federations Law No. 7405.) Furthermore, there are a total of 5,977 foundations including 253 Annexed Foundations and 167 Com- munity Foundations as well as 5,556 New Founda- tions and 1 Craftsman's Foundation. Since 2004, the number of associations has incre- ased by 74 per cent, from 69,740 in 2004 to 121,968 in 2022. 110 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 3.925,244 5.758,873 6.408,579 6.029,066 6.040,756 6.079,237 6.980,626 7.645,586 7.945,351 8.100,083 1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000 6,000,000 7,000,000 8,000,000 9,000,000 10,000,000 2004 2005 2007 2009 2006 2008 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2018 2019 2015 2016 2017 2020 2021 2022 0 8.429,410 8.946,166 9.080,662 9.143,852 7.385,474 7.904,326 8.306,207 7.986,790 8.593,630 140,000 69,740 70,900 72,704 76,326 78,713 81,907 84,996 88,010 91,891 96,725 102,642 106,416 108,217 110,914 114,410 118,430 121,834 121,522 121,968 120,000 100,000 180,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2018 2010 2020 2022 0 Number of Association Members by Years Sports clubs covered by Law No. 7405 on Sports Clubs and Sports Federations are included in the statistical data. The number of association members increased by 118 per cent from 3,925,244 in 2004 to 8,593,630 in 2022. Sports clubs covered by Law No. 7405 on Sports Clubs and Sports Federations are included in the statistical data. Since 2004, the number of associations has increased by 74 per cent, from 69,740 in 2004 to 121,968 in 2022. Number of Associations by Years AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 111 Associations’ Total Income by Years (TL) Sports clubs covered by Law No. 7405 on Sports Clubs and Sports Federations are included in the statistical data. Associations’ income increased by 629 per cent from 5,311,612,205 TL in 2004 to 38,772,712,025 TL in 2022. Various Numeral Data on New, Annexed and Community Foundations In Türkiye, there are 5,556 new foundations, 253 annexed foundations, 167 community foundations and one craftsman’s foundation. Number of Annexed Foundations 253 Number of Community Foundations 167 Craftsman’s Foundations 1 Number of New Foundations Social Assistance and Solidarity Foundation Environmental Protection Foundation Other 5556 1003 11 4542 Number of New Foundations’ Branches/Representatives 3180 Number of Tax Exempt Foundations 306 Foundation Universities/Vocational Schools of Higher Education 74/4 Number of Branches/Representatives of Foundations Established Abroad in Türkiye (Foreign Foundations) 11 112 AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE AN OUTLINE OF TÜRKİYE 113 Public and Civil Society Cooperation and Supports Public-civil society relations demonstrate global development and progress. This progress is being closely monitored in Türkiye, and studies on pub- lic and civil society relations are being conducted. Ministry of Interior has conducted 6,622 visits to NGOs since 2019 in order to consult the non-go- vernmental organisations’ opinions, listen to their problems and offer solutions on the spot, further develop public-NGO cooperation, and increase non-governmental organisation participation in decision-making mechanisms. A "Civil Society Consultation Board" was establis- hed under the Ministry of Interior's supervision to ensure the highest level of participation of public-N- GO cooperation and non-governmental organisati- ons in decision-making mechanisms. The Board is made up of university representatives, representati- ves from public institutions and organisations, and representatives from non-governmental organisa- tions, and its purpose is to determine and develop policies concerning non-governmental activities, to ensure cooperation between public and non-gover- nmental organisations, to increase the effectiveness of non-governmental organisations, and to ensure transparency and accountability. Türkiye has adopted the vision of supporting social organisation in order to contribute to the rooting of participatory democracy and raise the quality of life in society. The Ministry of Interior is implementing a project support programme in this context, which carries out the work and transactions of non-gover- nmental organisations in Türkiye, as well as gui- dance and inspection activities in the field of civil society, in order to support the associations' proje- cts. The Ministry of Interior provided approxima- tely 148,000,000 TL of project support to over 1,600 associations between 2017 and 2021 under the sco- pe of the aforementioned support programme. Digitalisation in the Field of Civil Society Many work and transactions for associations, whi- ch are an important part of civil society in Türkiye, can now be done digitally in a contemporary man- ner. Many transactions involving associations are conducted in a digital environment by the Ministry of Interior's General Directorate of Civil Society Re- lations through its Associations Information Sys- tem (DERBİS). The DERBİS system is used by 99 per cent of the people in Türkiye. Citizens can use the system to conduct association membership transactions through e-government. Türkiye in the World - TÜRKİYE'S ENTERPRISING AND HUMANITARIAN FOREIGN POLICY - THE EVENTS OF 1915 THAT FORMED A MILLENNIUM OF HISTORY - EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN - CYPRUS - FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISTS - JULY 15 COUP ATTEMPT - FOREIGN DEFENSE AND SECURITY - HUMANITARIAN AID - DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION - OUR CITIZENS LIVING ABROAD AND RELATED COMMUNITIES TURKISH FOREIGN POLICY AND CURRENT AFFAIRS T he Republic of Türkiye will proudly celeb- rate its centennial in 2023. As our Repub- lic is about to reach its second century, the primary objective of our country's foreign policy is to safeguard Türkiye's interests in a tumultuous regional and international setting where intense ups and downs characterise the global agenda. In pursuit of this primary objective, Türkiye strives to foster conditions conducive to sustainable pea- ce, stability, prosperity, and development in both her immediate vicinity and distant geographies. In this context, we meticulously implement an "En- terprising and Humanitarian Foreign Policy" that was guided by the ideal "Peace at Home, Peace in the World" as set out by the founder of our Repub- lic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and, in our President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's words, "reflects the en- terprising spirit and humanitarian values of our nation." The coronavirus pandemic, which erupted at the end of 2019, has affected the entire world and all areas of life in a short span of time and exacerbated the major tendencies such as populism, xenopho- bia, and trade protectionism that have lately emer- ged in international relations. The repercussions of challenges including climate change, terrorism, cyber-attacks, irregular migration, and armament are increasingly felt. We are going through a peri- od when the world's horizon is shrinking, crises and conflicts threaten peace and stability, power struggles between forces of different dimensions are accelerating, and multilateralism and univer- sal values are eroding. Escalating vulnerabilities, rising disparities, accelerated digitalisation, and weak global governance mechanisms in our region and across multiple geographies are attempting to shape the international setting. Due to its geographic location at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as its potential to influence and guide global developments, Türkiye is among the central actors in a number of signifi- cant developments around the globe. To elimina- te the threats and challenges of the current global situation and to take advantage of the emerging opportunities, Türkiye conducts a robust foreign policy on the ground and at the table through pro- active, inclusive, solution-oriented, and flexible diplomacy. In this sense, Türkiye, a country with a centuries-old and deeply rooted tradition of diplo- macy, draws inspiration for its foreign policy from a variety of sources, such as its central geograp- hical location, which serves as a bridge between East and West and North and South, as well as its historical diversity, stable institutions, competent human capital, and thriving economy. This creates unshakable bonds between tradition and the futu- re. Moreover, by retaining its diplomatic initiative advantage, Türkiye seeks to advance its national interests and build new bridges. Our country con- ducts diplomacy that thinks globally but also acts locally in every corner of the world. TÜRKİYE'S ENTERPRISING AND HUMANITARIAN FOREIGN POLICY 120 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Türkiye benefits from several complementary po- litical, economic, humanitarian, and cultural tools in line with the enterprising aspect of its foreign policy. Our country has already become the 5th lar- gest representation network in the world with a total of 255 diplomatic and consular missions. Türkiye has established a globally extensive network of cooperation, including High-Level Cooperation Councils with 28 countries, 4 inter- governmental summits, and a host of trilateral or other multilateral, regional formations. Türkiye maintains close ties with Balkan, Middle Eastern, North African, South Caucasus, South Asian, and Central Asian nations. Our country does not confi- ne itself to the aforementioned regions; therefore, she continues to broaden the scope of her foreign policy by bolstering the African partnership poli- cy and the outreach policies toward Latin America and the Caribbean. In this regard, the Third Türkiye-Africa Partners- hip Summit, hosted by our President in Istanbul on December 16-18, 2021, was a cornerstone. The summit was attended by 16 Heads of State and Go- vernment and 100 ministers, 25 of which were fo- reign ministers. A 5-year Action Plan was adopted at the summit, and a follow-up mechanism was established for its implementation. In addition, the Asia Anew initiative announced in 2019 has given Türkiye the opportunity to lay the foundations of a holistic and comprehensive poli- cy towards Asia, home to the rising powers of the 21st century. As the Easternmost European, and the Western- most Asian country, Türkiye seeks to strengthen its existing strategic relations while establishing new ones. Therefore, the European Union acces- sion process remains a strategic priority. With the goal of achieving full membership, efforts are made to improve our relations with the European Union on the basis of a concrete and positive agen- da. Türkiye is one of the leading Allies of NATO, to which it became a member in 1952. Our country assumes an effective responsibility within the Alliance, which is one of the cornerstones of our national defence and security, and acts on the ba- sis of the principles of the indivisibility of security and Alliance solidarity. Türkiye has been making extensive contributions to European security and transatlantic defence and security cooperation for decades. In this framework, Türkiye is among the top five Allies that contribute the most to NATO's operations and missions, and among the top eight Allies that provide the most support to its budget. Our nation is a member and, in some cases, a foun- ding member of nearly all European organisati- ons, such as the Council of Europe and the Orga- nisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Türkiye offers efficient assistance in the search for solutions to a variety of challenges, including mass migration flows that have an impact on the conti- nent. Europe's and the world's energy security is inextricably linked to Türkiye's status as a hub for energy lines. Our country, which emphasises regional owners- hip and solutions to regional issues, is also a foun- 121 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ding member of numerous regional organisations and initiatives, such as the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organisation, the Southeast Europe- an Cooperation Process, and the Economic Coope- ration Organisation. As a member of the Organisation of Islamic Co- operation (OIC), the Developing Eight (D8), the Organisation of Turkic States, Asia Cooperation Dialogue and MIKTA (Mexico, Indonesia, Korea, Türkiye, and Australia), our country has brought additional strength and dynamism to all the for- mations/organisations of which it is a member du- ring Term Presidencies. Solution of global challenges depends on colle- ctive efforts forged by cooperation and effective multilateralism. This reality guides Türkiye's ac- tive diplomacy within multilateral platforms. Our country served at the UN Security Council during the 2009-2010 term, constructively contributing to global peace, stability, and security. As stressed by our President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's motto, "The World is Bigger than Five," Türkiye has been advocating for the reform of the UN Security Coun- cil and other multilateral organisations, which are inadequate in the face of today's complex and mul- tidimensional issues. Our country has a leading role in conflict resolu- tion and mediation. As part of this, Türkiye is the only country to simultaneously co-chair the Frien- ds of Mediation Groups at the UN, OSCE and the OIC. Our country also hosts the annual Istanbul Mediation Conferences, which offer intellectual contributions to the field of mediation; prioritises capacity-building and organises the "Mediation for Peace Certificate Programs" for young diplomats from the OIC Member States. In addition to the enterprising character of our fo- reign policy, the human factor remains at the heart of our efforts. Consequently, our country is positio- ned as a compassionate power. As an active mem- ber of the G20 since its inception and holder of the 2015 term presidency, Türkiye has been promoting the humanitarian-development, including inclusi- ve economic growth and equitable distribution. During the coronavirus pandemic, our foreign po- licy has also proven its humanitarian nature. Our nation has sent aid to 160 countries and 12 inter- national organisations that requested assistance, with the understanding that "a friend in need is a friend indeed." The fact that our country became a world leader in medical assistance is yet another manifestation of the humanitarian nature of our foreign policy. In the greatest evacuation opera- tion in the history of the Republic, Türkiye eva- cuated more than 100,000 Turkish citizens from 142 countries and made its humanitarian power known to her citizens. Furthermore, during the Ukraine crisis, Türkiye evacuated almost 18,000 citizens, allowing their safe return to their home- land from Ukraine. It is also of great importance for our foreign policy that our citizens living abroad actively participa- te in the political, economic, and social life of the countries they live in while maintaining their ties with their homeland and culture. While continu- ing our efforts to continuously increase the quality of the services given to our citizens abroad, we pro- 122 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD vide the necessary support to our compatriots and related communities worldwide. It is one of our primary duties to assist our citizens in resolving issues they encounter abroad and to safeguard them against racism and hate crimes, which are on the rise. Ethnic and religious hatred, racism, discrimina- tion, extremism, xenophobia, Islamophobia, and other forms of exclusion are universal concerns of humanity, negative impacts of which are widely felt. Our nation, faced with such issues, emphasi- ses the need for transparency, diversity, dialogue, and inclusive policies. As the inheritor of a histori- cal tradition of tolerance, Türkiye has always been at the front of efforts to promote mutual respect and shared values across other cultures and reli- gions. The UN Alliance of Civilisations initiative, co-sponsored by our nation and Spain, represents a prudent response to the so-called "clash of civili- sations" theory. On the other hand, terrorism and various forms of extremism activities have reached a menacing intensity around the globe. Terrorist and extre- mist groups undermine international peace and security. On every platform, we unequivocally state that terrorism is a global threat and a crime against humanity. It is a threat demanding global solidarity and an all-out response. Terrorist crimes cannot be associated with any race, ethnicity, fa- ith, or geography. Our nation has been combating all forms of terrorism vigorously. Our state tradition, which places people at the he- art of its actions, is also reflected in our humanita- rian aid and development assistance programmes. Our country hosted the first ever World Humanita- rian Summit in Istanbul in 2016. Based on huma- nitarian expenditure per capita relative to national income, Türkiye is the most generous country in the world. At the same time, our nation is currently the top refugee hosting country in the world. As part of this, Türkiye hosts more than 4 million externally displaced people, nearly 3.7 million of them are Sy- rians under temporary protection who were forced to flee the war in their own country. To date, Türkiye has spent more than 40 billion USD nationwide to provide relief and services to the Syrians under temporary protection. On the ot- her hand, our nation supports Syrians' voluntary and dignified return to Syria. Hundreds of thou- sands of Syrians have thus far been able to return to their homes. Effective foreign policy necessitates keeping up with change and simultaneously diversifying po- licy instruments accordingly. By implementing innovative initiatives, our nation has shaped not only the diplomacy of today but also that of the future. The Digital Diplomacy programme's obje- ctive is to use technology's revolutionary potential in all aspects of foreign policy. As part of this, it se- eks to increase our efficiency and effectiveness in all areas, including consular services, public dip- lomacy, digital infrastructure, and foreign policy analysis. The Antalya Diplomacy Forum (ADF) is an inno- vative forum that was recently launched by our country. ADF was designed as an initiative that seeks to exchange views on global and regional is- sues and provide creative solutions to strategic fo- 123 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD reign policy challenges, and it has become a brand in our nation. The first forum, themed "Innovative Diplomacy: New Era, New Approaches," took place between June 18-20, 2021, while the second, "Reco- ding Diplomacy," took place between March 11-13, 2022. Both forums were honoured by our Presi- dent's auspices and inauguration. The forum hos- ted 3,260 participants from 75 countries, including 17 Heads of State and Government, 80 ministers, 40 high-level members of international organisa- tions, as well as other policymakers, diplomats, business leaders, think-tank representatives, aca- demics, and youth. In 2023, the centennial anniversary of the Repub- lic of Türkiye, the 500th anniversary of the Turkish Foreign Service, will be proudly celebrated. Turkish diplomacy, while continuing to secure her national interests within the framework of our En- terprising and Humanitarian Foreign Policy, will simultaneously contribute to the shared goals of humanity and, on the other hand, will remain an active force in the second century of our Republic by adopting the understanding that "A Fairer Wor- ld is Possible," as expressed by our President. THE EVENTS OF 1915 THAT FORMED A MILLENNIUM OF HISTORY T urkish-Armenian ties, which span over a millennium, have at times been characte- rised by friendships and alliances and at other times by conflicts and tensions. Armenians, who safeguarded their national existence by siding with powerful states in times of turmoil and conf- lict, were unable to establish an independent state structure before and after the Turks landed on the scene because they lacked a majority of the popu- lation in any province of Anatolia, and they inste- ad clustered around their churches to maintain a sense of national identity. The Seljuks, the Anato- lian principalities, and then the Ottomans granted religious and cultural liberties to the Armenians, allowing them to enjoy prosperity until the nine- teenth century. During the nineteenth century, the age of nationalism, Armenians, like other Ottoman subjects, acted on the idea of self-determination and sought the backing of great states, notably Russia and Britain, to realise their ambitions. On the other hand, the Ottoman Empire attempted to overcome this process with additional legal re- forms but failed. Every right acknowledged and reform enacted bolstered Armenians' sense of na- tionalism, and as a result, World War I was marked by undesirable events. Armenia and the Armenian diaspora, who have accused the Ottoman Empire and its descendant, the Republic of Türkiye, of ge- nocide over the past century, are attempting to ac- hieve their goals through political pressures with the assistance of the international community. The Armenian committees not only accuse the Turks of genocide but also seek to oppress, con- demn and convict those who do not accept their claims regarding the Events of 1915, which have not been legally verified. On July 5, 2013, the "Second Pan-Armenian Forum of Lawyers" was held in Yerevan with the involve- ment of Armenian, Karabakh, and Diaspora law- yers, where legal issues concerning the so-called Armenian genocide were discussed. In his intro- ductory remarks at the forum, President Sarkissi- an of Armenia stressed the significance of lawyers' theoretical and practical contributions to the in- ternational recognition of the genocide and added, "International recognition of the Armenian geno- cide, its condemnation and elimination of the con- sequences will always be an imperative. As long as there exists an Armenian state, all efforts to deny and send to oblivion this historical reality will be 126 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD doomed to failure. The greatest crime against hu- manity must be recognised and condemned once and for all and first of all by Türkiye itself." Since the failure of the normalisation protocols signed between Armenia and Türkiye in 2010 due to pressure from Armenian committees, Armenia has intensified its criticism of Türkiye, and Arme- nian leaders have gone beyond recognition and condemnation, insisting on "eliminating the con- sequences of the genocide". This refers to mone- tary compensation for descendants of Armenians deported between 1915 and 1923, the restitution of allegedly confiscated Armenian property, inclu- ding churches, and the handover of territory from Türkiye to Armenia. Armenian legal experts cla- im that the Treaty of Sèvres is still in effect while the Treaties of Alexandropol, Moscow, and Kars signed between the states are null and void. The member states of the European Union and the Uni- ted States have demanded that Türkiye meet and make peace with Armenians who hold this view. Despite all these unilateral impositions, the Tür- kiye-Azerbaijan-Armenia rapprochement that began following the Karabakh Wars demonstra- tes that Armenia will benefit from the realpolitik. However, the Dashnak groups, who oppose this si- tuation, intend to pressure the Pashinyan govern- ment and bring it down through street rallies. The Armenian committees, which pursue policies that will result in the suffering of the Armenian people, as they have done for the past century, implement the policies of isolating Armenia in the Caucasus and thus keep promoting the "victimised Armeni- an identity" policy ingrained in international pub- lic opinion. The concept of genocide and the allegations ari- sing from it have become a more often debated to- pic by Armenians residing in the diaspora, as well as those in Armenia, perhaps even more frequent- ly. The Events of 1915 have little effect on the da- ily lives of Armenians living in economic distress. However, the genocide is considered a raison d'êt- re by Armenians who are distributed worldwide, economically secure, or at least not in difficulty. The rejection of this fact and the erasing of its me- mory is a phenomenon that will cause Armenians to disintegrate and eventually vanish from their community. The concept of a "genocide-stricken nation," which has become a raison d'être for the Armenian diaspora, serves as an essential founda- tion. Obviously, this approach should be viewed as part of a larger totality in terms of historical conti- nuity; it is seen that Armenians had the same men- tality a millennium ago, even before they met the Turks. In this regard, 150 years of Armenian terror and allegations, as well as the spirit of animosity towards the Turks, appear to rest on a flawed his- torical thesis. Given this distorted historical thesis and the tradition of writing about genocide, it is evident that the situation has become chronic to preserve national consciousness. Despite the fact that Armenians have not been mi- litarily and politically active in Eastern Anatolia since ancient times, they felt compelled to include themselves among the Assyrians, Urartians, Persi- ans, and Medes who dominated the region. In actu- ality, a powerful Armenian state was nonexistent throughout this time. Approaches like the "Greater Armenian History" were able to endure persecu- 127 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD tion and exile under the Byzantine and Sassanid governments that ruled the region even after the Armenians converted to Christianity. When the Turks arrived in Anatolia, neither a substantial Ar- menian kingdom nor a powerful Armenian leader existed. The Great Seljuk administration offered the Armenians freedom in nearly every sector, as did other subjects, and Armenians, who were not a martial civilisation, rose to prominence in trade and arts among the Muslim nations founded in the region. Most of the Armenians in Çukurova, Bursa, and Amasya moved to Istanbul after the Ottoman Empire was founded and Istanbul was conquered, and many Armenians who fled the persecution of Abbas I, the Safavid Shah of Iran, to the Ottoman territory in the first half of the seventeenth cen- tury. In pursuit of a tranquil existence, Armenians settled in Istanbul, İzmir, and other Ottoman cities, where they engaged in commerce and crafts. Ar- menians mingled with Turks by assuming nume- rous administrative positions inside the Ottoman Empire. Helmuth Von Moltke, who was in Türkiye between 1835 and 1839, stated the following about Armenians when referencing the Armenian trans- lator of the Serasker (Commander-in-Chief) of the Ottoman Empire and his family: "In reality, these Armenians may be considered Christian Turks. While the Greeks maintained their distinct charac- teristics, the Armenians embraced Turkish practi- ses and even the language. On the street, their wo- men are indistinguishable from Turkish women." From the seventeenth century to the middle of the nineteenth century, significant changes occurred in Ottoman Empire's administration regarding Armenians, the Armenian Church utilised Christi- anity to build Armenian nationalism, and Europe- an states put more pressure on the Sublime Porte accordingly. Like Greece, Armenians now thought that a powerful state's assistance would be essen- tial on their path to independence. Therefore, the Armenian Patriarch of Istanbul, Nerses Varzhape- tian, along with religious leaders Mkrtich Khrimi- an and Khoren Narbey, requested the founding of at least an Armenian Federation in Eastern Anato- lia at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which was the first time the wishes of the Armenian nation were articulated in an international setting. With the sorrow of not being able to get what they desired after the Treaty of Berlin, Khrimian writes the fol- lowing to the Armenians of Van in one of his pie- ces, "… the rule of the jungle is that you will always be slaughtered if you act like a sheep, if you lack the horns of a bull, or if you are unarmed. Do you believe you can achieve the freedom you seek and dream of without shedding blood?" After these provocations, the people of Van began to coalesce. Even the Istanbul-based Armenian publications were uneasy with Khrimian's revolutionary ideas. The use of force and violence would become an integral part of Armenian propaganda, while the religion factor would be exploited only as a com- ponent of the Armenian national movement to alarm Europe and the United States. Since the Ar- menians lacked a precedent for building an inde- pendent state and becoming an independent so- ciety and had never encountered such a situation in the past, the necessity to construct an adversary to thwart this way of life evolved spontaneous- ly. In Armenian historiography, the struggles of Armenian leaders and committee members have always been portrayed as heroic, but the Ottoman administration, which ran a state in political unity that respects and adheres to international law, has always been depicted as harsh and merciless. This historical perspective is totally influenced by the states that have taken action against the Turkish administration since the nineteenth century. The events in the Ottoman Empire, as well as the stru- ggles of the Greeks, Serbs, and Bulgarians, were already associated with a Christian spirit by the European and American public. The Armenians, who lacked a homeland in the east, desired to es- tablish an independent state in regions where they comprised less than twenty per cent of the popu- lation. The weakest aspect of their argument was that they lacked this concept of homeland. 128 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Khrimian's selected line of action began to bear fruit quickly in Anatolia. Van became a hub for Armenian secret organisations. Graves, the British Consul in Erzurum, asserts that the events erup- ted when the Armenian insurgents in the Ottoman Empire came and incited the Armenian people to rebel. Again, the renowned Armenian committee member, Mihran Damadian, apprehended in Muş and confessed to Abdulhamid II in Istanbul, cla- ims that their attacks on Muslims in the east spar- ked the outbreak of events. Abdulhamid II, who would be the sultan for 33 ye- ars in this critical period, foresaw the great states' plans to divide Anatolia by establishing an inde- pendent state (Armenia) in Eastern Anatolia, simi- lar to the Balkans, and took extraordinary measu- res to maintain public order there. Faced with this circumstance, Armenian political and religious groups attempted to intensify their activities and draw the attention of European powers; they be- lieved they could achieve this by causing unrest in Anatolia. They conducted these activities through the revolutionary organisations Hunchak (1887) and Dashnak (1890) they established. The Hunc- haks, organised in Anatolia and various European towns, first displayed their strength on July 15, 1890, during the Kum Kapu Demonstration. The goal of the demonstration was to rouse the oppres- sed Armenians, punish the church for cooperating with the Ottoman Government, and warn the Sub- lime Porte of Armenian desires. The Armenian committee members, particularly those from the Istanbul Armenian Revolutionary Society, incited the Armenian community in Is- tanbul with posters denigrating both the Otto- man Government and the Armenian Patriarchate and threatened those who disobeyed with the de- ath penalty. The committee members also acted mercilessly toward the Armenians serving in the Ottoman Government. Haçik (Khachig) Efendi, a courthouse attorney, was murdered by the Arme- nian Secret Society because he had testified over the Kum Kapu incidents. The historical records and archives are replete with similar threats and murder reports. The events that began in Merzifon in 1893 and quickly extended to Yozgat, Kayseri, and Çorum were organised by Tomayan and Kaya- yan, teachers at the Anatolia College in Merzifon. Even though the executives' crimes were proven when they were convicted after these incidents, their release due to pressure from the USA and European states would only serve to encourage the Armenian committee members to start a riot in Anatolia. The Sasun Rebellions of 1894 followed these incidents. The Dashnaks were the second significant group to promote rebellion in Anatolia after the Hunchaks. Founded in Tbilisi in 1890, Dashnaksutyun chose terror as its method. The purpose of the Dashnak Committee, which thinks that “a dozen gangs that will send weapons are more effective than a dozen programmes," is to aid gangs travelling from Russia to Türkiye, establish a defence organisation, spark a rebellion and revolution by employing supporters, and ensure Armenia's independence by arming Ar- menians. Karekin Pastirmaciyan, a Tashnaksutyun Society member who organised the 1896 Ottoman Bank Raid that resulted in the killings of thousan- ds of people in Istanbul, would later organise the Armenian volunteer troops in the Russian army in Tbilisi during the First World War. Fedayis, in fact, was a more significant formati- on that sparked the Armenian incidents and, in a sense, carried out these societies' decisions. The revolutionary movement was associated with the Fedayi movement in the minds of Armenians. The banditry in Armenian rural villages served as the fedayis' foundation. The initial goal of the mobile gangs, which consisted of 10 to 15 armed men, was to arm Armenian villagers and spark an uprising against Ottoman rule. These Fedayis, hailed as na- tional heroes in Armenian historiography, inclu- ded Armenians like Antranik, Hamazsb, Dro, Para- maz, and Sabah Gulyan, who were responsible for 129 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 100 years of bloodshed in Anatolia. They would command the Armenian Volunteer Units deplo- yed by the Russian Tsardom in the Caucasus at the start of the First World War, and they would com- mit a full-scale genocide against the local Muslim population during the occupation of the provinces of Van, Erzurum, and Bitlis. The decision on relo- cation and resettlement was still being considered as these actions were being performed. After the Second Constitutional Monarchy was proclaimed in 1908, most Armenians turned to democratic elections to fight for their rights. Hinc- hak and Dashnak evolved into political parties and participated in the Ottoman Parliament. However, leader Antranik, representing the mountain bran- ch of Dashnak, and Paramaz and Sabah Gülyan, representing the terrorist branch of Hinchak, did not comply with these decisions. They believed that the Constitutional Monarchy was a trap in- tended for the Armenians and that the only way the Armenian people could secure their future was through armed struggle. The 7th Congress of the Hinchak Society, convened in Constanta in 1913, decided to wage war against the Ottoman Empire and assassinate its ministers regardless of whet- her the party was a political structure compliant with Ottoman law. Both the Hinchak and Dashnak groups participated as military forces in the states' armies during the Balkan Wars against the Otto- man Empire. The Ottoman Empire, which did not enter the First World War under favourable circumstances, obser- ved that various groups living on its territory sup- ported France, England, and Russia, with whom the Ottoman Empire was at war. The Ottoman Empire exercised some of the rights granted by in- ternational law because it saw this situation as a threat to its own future. The practice of relocation and resettlement for Armenians, or relocation as it is more commonly known, began within the fra- mework of the law, which was enacted on May 27 and made public on June 1 in the Takvim-i Vekayi newspaper. The relocation law and its implemen- tation occurred more than 100 years ago, but it is still one of the most talked-about topics in history and politics. Because the same forces that former- ly used Armenians as political pawns still employ the same policies to exert greater political pressure on the Republic of Türkiye. Therefore, although other Western nations have adopted similar relo- cation practices lately and in the past, the reloca- tion of Armenians remains a major issue. The fact that the Armenians want the relocation policy and what followed it to be recognised as "genocide" by the international community is undoubtedly the first significant factor. In fact, more than 20 natio- nal parliaments have recognised the Events of 1915 as the "First Genocide of the 20th Century" to date. When domestic and foreign sources are examined, it is clear that the events cannot be characterized as genocide. 130 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Reviewing the reports and evaluations of domestic and foreign sources who witnessed the relocation practice makes it evident that the incidents can- not be classified as genocide. The numbers of the Armenian losses, which increased from 300,000 during the war years to 1.5 million, reveal that the topic was politicised. A contemporary historian should be able to tell the difference between reality and war propaganda, recognise the traps of docu- ments, and avoid viewing history through the lens of the present. There should not be propaganda to defame the enemy during the war, which should be taken as a reference regarding relocation. Relo- cation is a historical incident and should be rew- ritten in the light of new documents and informa- tion. This way, taboos were born since history was not chronicled with documentation. It is apparent from the official documents that the decision to relocate was based on the military ne- cessity for reasons of internal security. This issue was also addressed in the telegrams that Minister of War Enver Pasha sent to Minister of Interior Ta- lat Pasha. Enver Pasha highlighted that Armenians instigated riots behind the army, engaged in acts of sabotage, and disrupted army operations. As a precaution against the rebellions, he proposed the dispersal of Armenians and their families either to Russian territory or various locations in Anatolia. The justifications were also outlined in the decla- rations issued to announce the relocation law to the Armenians. Consequently, as a result of fore- ign indoctrination, Armenian citizens held wrong thoughts that would disrupt the peace and tranqu- illity of their state and other citizens, along with their own peace. Armenian associations had had the courage to side with the government's adver- saries in battle. In order to safeguard the existence of the country and the Armenian community, the state had to relocate the Armenian community to the regions of the country it had prepared for them to settle in until the end of the war. With the success of the Turkish National Struggle between 1918 and 1922 and the founding of the Re- public of Türkiye, the Republican administrators did not behave with bias against Armenians, and it was observed that a large number of Armenian citizens sided with the state and subject to the new Republic. As a legal document, the Treaty of Lausanne secured minority rights. In the structure of the new republic, the basis of belonging to the Turkish nation was not linked to race but rather to the unity of "language, culture and ideal". During the Republican era, Armenians made significant contributions to the cultural and aesthetic deve- lopment of Türkiye. The Armenian community has become an integral component of the Turkish Republic and Turkish society. With the efforts of Armenia and Armenians in the diaspora, the issue of the "Armenian genoci- de" began to reappear on Türkiye's agenda more frequently after 1965. The Armenian issue, to whi- ch Türkiye did not attach much importance until 1965 and believed it had been resolved with the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, had become a preoc- cupation for Türkiye, particularly in its foreign po- licy, since 1965, when the Armenians declared it to be the fiftieth anniversary of the genocide. On the one hand, the Armenian diaspora resorted to ter- rorist acts, and on the other, they attempted to get resolutions recognising the genocide passed in the parliaments of the countries in which they resided. While ASALA and JCAG-ARA directed the third period of Armenian terrorism, which began with an individual act in 1973, small Armenian terro- rist organisations also emerged. ASALA, which is the continuation of the Hunchak Committee, was formed first, and then JCAG-ARA was founded by the Dashnaks, who were worried about losing their fanatical supporters to ASALA. The objecti- ve of ASALA was to liberate Armenia of Türkiye and form an independent state or unite with So- viet Armenia. The objective of JCAG-ARA, which was founded by the nationalist Dashnak com- mittee, was to unite so-called Armenia of Türkiye and Soviet Armenia to form a great independent Armenia. Although there are differences in the 131 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD objectives of both terrorist organisations, there are similarities: to avenge the so-called genocide which they allege was committed in 1915. In addi- tion, they employ the same methods: intimidation, murder, rampage, frightening, violence, and terror. While JCAG-ARA does not engage in bombings in public, ASALA has done so frequently. 16 people died in the Esenboğa and Orly attacks alone. Alt- hough ASALA has often made threats and taken acts against western countries, JACAG-ARA ra- rely threatens western countries. It has directed 31 of its 32 attacks at Turkish targets. Other than the Esenboğa and Orly attacks, JCAG-ARA was responsible for all significant acts. JCAG-ARA as- sumed responsibility for almost all of the assassi- nations of ambassadors. Since 1984, the third wave of Armenian terrorism has eased down. The most important reason for this is that the objectives of the Armenian terrorist acts were achieved. The in- cident of 1915 was revived, and 50 years later, not only Armenians but the entire world refocused on the Armenian issue. The most salient example of this is the ratification of Armenian Genocide bills by other states, beginning with the European Par- liament in 1987. As a result of the Armenians' success in their ef- forts against Türkiye, anti-Turkish groups inside and outside the country have developed their own genocide argument. The most well-known are the Pontic Greeks and the Assyrians. Armenians, Pon- tic Greeks, and Assyrians synchronised their acti- vities, and today the term "Late Ottoman genoci- des" has been coined in the literature on genocide studies. Today, Turks are accused of something they have never committed and compelled to recognise so- mething they have never committed. The Repub- lic of Türkiye demands that the aforementioned conditions be met and that history be reassessed as a science by the publics of Europe and the Uni- ted States, who consistently voice an impartial and free public opinion and scientific understanding. Türkiye, believing that the convergence of Turkish and Armenian historical narratives around a "fair memory" could pave the way, proposed in 2005 the establishment of a joint historical commissi- on to conduct research on the events of 1915 in its own archives, as well as the archives of Armenia and third countries. The findings of the aforemen- tioned commission will enable a better and fair understanding of the tragic period in question on both sides and contribute to the dialogue between Turks and Armenians. A new normalisation process has begun between Türkiye and Armenia. In this regard, the first mee- ting between Special Representatives Ambassador Serdar Kılıç and Deputy Speaker of the Armenian Parliament Ruben Rubinyan was held on January 14, 2022, in Moscow. During their first meeting, which took place in a positive and constructive at- mosphere, the Special Representatives exchanged preliminary views on the normalisation process between Türkiye and Armenia to be carried out through dialogue. The parties agreed to continue the negotiations with the goal of full normalisati- on without preconditions. Negotiations between Special Representatives are still ongoing. At this point, it is clear that ignoring Türkiye's constructi- ve approaches and making decisions that support Armenia's unilateral arguments will not contribu- te positively to this process. Historical information and data on the 1915 events can also be accessed on the website "1915.gov.tr". DID YOU KNOW? EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN T ürkiye, the country with the longest coastli- ne in the Eastern Mediterranean at 1870 ki- lometres, has played an active and dominant role in the region for centuries. One of the most glo- rious symbols of our long-standing presence in the Mediterranean is the Preveza Naval Victory, which we claimed 483 years ago. Turkish dominance in the Mediterranean was cemented with this specta- cular victory in 1538, under the command of Barba- ros Kheireddin Pasha. As a result, this geography, which has historically served as the cradle of nume- rous civilisations, has achieved a climate of peace, tranquillity, and stability that will last for centuries. In terms of trade and politics, this era, known in the literature as the Ottoman Peace (Pax Ottomana), is also the Mediterranean's golden age. In addition to the Mediterranean basin, the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa have experienced their most peaceful period over these centuries. Mediterranean-related issues have recently taken centre stage on the agendas of many states, inclu- ding our own. Considering the recent energy crisis, this region, which has the potential to connect Asia, Africa and Europe via sea, has become increasingly critical. Developments in the Eastern Mediterrane- an, which have significant hydrocarbon resources and energy potential, have come to the top of the global agenda. Some studies show that the extractable natural gas reserves in the region have the potential to supply Europe's natural gas demands for years. This po- tential cannot be ignored by any actor especially in the current conjuncture. With the involvement of international energy companies, the importance of oil and gas in the geopolitics of the Eastern Mediter- ranean has increased. Our country’s interest in the region is not limited to the existence of energy resources. Every action in the Mediterranean immediately affects the security, rights, and interests of both our country and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Unfortunately, the Eastern Mediterranean has de- veloped into a region of rising instability, where complicated and intertwined issues provide the strongest barrier to all-encompassing collaborati- on. The fact that the maritime jurisdictions of the coastal states have not yet been defined is another cause of instability, in addition to the complicated 134 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD political and security-related challenges in various parts of the region. The unilateral action of some actors on hydrocarbon resources worsens the cur- rent situation. Türkiye's policy towards the Eastern Mediterrane- an has two aspects: The first aspect concerns the delimitation of ma- ritime jurisdictions in the Eastern Mediterranean. Protecting Turkish Cypriots' rights to the Island's offshore resources constitutes the second aspe- ct of Türkiye's Eastern Mediterranean policy. As co-owners of the Island, Turkish Cypriots have equal rights with Greek Cypriots over the offshore resources. However, Greek Cypriots have been ac- ting unilaterally in violation of these rights since 2003 and refuse to cooperate with Turkish Cyp- riots. Since 2004, Türkiye has informed the UN of the boundaries of its continental shelf in the Eas- tern Mediterranean. Following this, in 2009 and 2012, licence areas were established inside these boundaries, and Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO) was granted exploration and extraction licences. The external boundaries of our continen- tal shelf in the Mediterranean were registered with the UN on March 18, 2020, in accordance with the memorandum of understanding on the delimi- tation of the maritime jurisdiction areas that we concluded with Libya in November 2019. (Turkish Continental Shelf in the Eastern Mediterranean) The Greek Cypriot Administration of Southern Cyprus (GCASC) made maritime delimitation ag- reements with the neighbouring countries of the Island of Cyprus with Egypt in 2003, Lebanon in 2007, and Israel in 2010, and it maintains to issue concession licences for oil and natural gas explora- tion activities in the maritime jurisdictions of the Island. Blocks 1, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the so-called licen- ce areas of the GCASC partially overlap with our continental shelf. (GCASC so-called licence areas map) Our country objects to the 2003 Exclusive Econo- mic Zone Delimitation Agreement between the GCASC and Egypt since our continental shelf has been violated, in addition to the Cyprus issue. It objects to the Greek Cypriot-Lebanese and Greek Cypriot-Israeli Agreements only within the con- GCASC so-called licence areas map 135 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD text of the Cyprus issue since the GCASC does not represent the entirety of the Island and is not en- titled to sign delimitation agreements exclusively, neglecting the TRNC, and it cooperates with the TRNC to provide the appropriate responses. Seismic research was carried out in the southern part of the Island by the GCASC in 2006 and 2007. In addition, it identified offshore licence areas and staged the first licence tender in 2007. Along with the Turkish Cypriots, Türkiye has repeatedly ur- ged the GCASC to halt its offshore activities until the Cyprus issue has found a comprehensive so- lution. The first drilling activity of the GCASC on Septem- ber 19, 2011, marked a turning point in Türkiye's Eastern Mediterranean policy. Türkiye and the TRNC were forced to respond to these unilateral steps on the ground as a result of the first drilling of the GCASC. Two days after the first drilling, Türkiye and the TRNC also signed a maritime ju- risdiction delimitation agreement for the Cyprus Island's northern part. To protect their equal righ- ts, the TRNC issued exploration and drilling licen- ces to the TPAO in the same manner as the GCASC by designating offshore blocks. Our country has completed 8 drillings (Alanya-1, Finike-1, Karpaz-1, Güzelyurt-1, Magosa-1, Narlı- kuyu-1, Lefkoşa-1, Selçuklu-1) in the Eastern Me- diterranean so far. On October 30, 2018, the Fatih drilling ship, purchased from Norway at the end of 2017, completed its debut deep-sea drilling off Antalya/Alanya in the Mediterranean, followed by research on the Finike-1 and Magosa-1 wells. On February 12, 2020, our ship completed its work in the Narlıkuyu-1 well and headed to the Black Sea to continue its activities. Our second drilling ship, Yavuz, completed its re- search in the Güzelyurt-1 well on our continental shelf and then in the Nicosia-1 wells after its ope- rations off the Karpaz (in the Karpaz-1 well in the E block, where TRNC gave licence to TPAO), and by October 5, 2020, our second drilling ship, Yavuz, finished its research in the Selçuklu-1 well on our continental shelf, having begun on April 20, 2020. Turkish Continental Shelf in the Eastern Mediterranean 136 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD (This region coincides with the so-called 6th and 7th blocks of the GCASC). Our Oruç Reis Seismic research ship, which has been conducting seismic research in our seas since August 2017, started its activities in the MUT-3B region on October 8, 2021, which lasted until Janu- ary 17, 2022. In line with our goal to utilise our domestic and national resources as fully as possible by TP, our fourth drilling ship named "Abdülhamid Han" was added to our drilling fleet in May 2022 after Fatih, Yavuz and Kanuni. It is envisaged that the ship in question will start hydrocarbon exploration activi- ties on our continental shelf in the Eastern Medi- terranean on August 9, 2022. The so-called "Seville Map", which amply shows the maximalist claims of Greece and the GCASC, is a manifestation of an attempt to cram Türkiye into a limited maritime jurisdiction area in the Eastern Mediterranean. With the pressure of Greece and Greek Cypriots, this map, originally produced as academic research, gradually began to appear in the official documents of the EU. The Seville Map, which acknowledges the Gulf of Antalya as the only significant maritime jurisdiction area for Türkiye, makes the maximalist claims of the Gre- ek/Greek Cypriot duo on the map fiercely evident. This is totally unacceptable for our country, which has the largest continental coastline in the Eastern Mediterranean. (The so-called Seville Map) Instead of being a region where rivalry, confli- ct, and tension are prevalent, the Mediterranean should remain a sea that promotes stability and cooperation. Our large family's roof and home are the Mediterranean, which includes all its countries and peoples, from Algeria to Egypt, Libya to Tuni- sia, Palestine to Israel, Türkiye to Greece, and Italy to Spain. Instead of creating tension in the Medi- The so-called Seville Map 137 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD terranean, Türkiye supports peace, cooperation, fairness, and justice in the region. In this regard, the regional "Eastern Mediterranean Conference" suggested by our President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to take place in 2020 represents a very significant opportunity for the establishment of a coopera- tion platform where multilateral dialogue on the Eastern Mediterranean will be encouraged, our ri- ghtfulness and legitimate claims as Türkiye will be expressed, and the Turkish Cypriots, who have a stakeholder position, will be included at the table. Some countries whose energy companies do busi- ness in the region are also expected to be invited, in addition to the coastline countries. Additionally, the proposals made by the TRNC in 2011 and updated in 2012 and 2019 regarding the cooperation of Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cy- priots, as equal partners of the Island, on hydro- carbon resources to which they have equal rights, including revenue sharing, and the concurrent use of these resources, are still valid. In this context, it should constantly be remembered in the context of a regional policy that any equation in which Türkiye and the TRNC do not engage equitably will not result in permanent Mediterranean peace. T he administration of Cyprus, which was taken from the Venetians in 1571 and rema- ined under de facto and official Ottoman rule for 307 years, was handed to Great Britain in 1878 on the condition that the Ottoman Empi- re retained the right to sovereignty. As a result of the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain taking op- posing sides in the First World War, Great Britain unilaterally annexed the Island in 1914. With the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, Türkiye recognised British sovereignty over the Island. Until the beginning of the 19th century, there were more Turks in Cyprus than Greeks. The amount of land belonging to the Turks, who were engaged in agriculture, was more than that of the Greeks. The social and cultural lives of the two sides remained distinct; there was no marriage between the Turks and the Greeks, and neither community engaged in activities such as establishing a joint commer- cial enterprise. With the handover of the Island's administration to the British, living conditions for Turkish Cypri- ots grew difficult, and as a result, Turkish Cypriots began migrating to Anatolia and migration from Greece to the Island began. Since 1931, the Greek Cypriots escalated their de- mands for union with Greece. The "ENOSIS" cam- paign, which can be summarised as integrating Cyprus with Greece and turning it into a "Hellen" Island, accelerated after the Second World War. Greece decided to bring the Cyprus issue to the United Nations unilaterally in 1954, and until 1958, she was not able to achieve any success in her va- rious applications made to the UN for "self-deter- mination". In the meantime, Colonel Grivas, who came from Greece, founded the EOKA terrorist organisation in 1955, and the violent acts on the Island gradually increased. During the 1955-1958 period, the Turkish Cypriots had to leave 33 mixed villages. To reverse the "ENOSIS" efforts, the Uni- ted Kingdom declared in 1956 that not only Greek Cypriots but also Turkish Cypriots had the right to "self-determination" and that a demand for divisi- on was a valid option within this framework. The failure of Greece to secure a UN resolution in favour of unilateral "self-determination" and Eno- sis, the resistance of the Turkish Cypriots against Enosis, as well as Türkiye's determination to sup- port the Turkish Cypriots enabled the beginning of negotiations between Türkiye and Greece. On February 11, 1959, Türkiye and Greece reached an agreement in Zurich that was approved in Lon- don by the leaders of the United Kingdom as well as the two sides of the Cyprus issue. The Zurich and London Agreements that resulted from this circumstance were based on the principles of in- CYPRUS 140 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD dependence, the partnership of the Turkish and Greek Cypriot sides, and the effective guarantee of autonomy and social solutions by Türkiye, Greece and the United Kingdom. The Republic of Cyprus was established in 1960 in accordance with international agreements ba- sed on the partnership of the two peoples of the Island. Its constitution is founded on the equality of the political rights and status of the Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island, as gua- ranteed by the relevant agreements. The 1960 re- gulations attempted to achieve an internal balan- ce by a functional partnership between the two peoples and an external balance with the involve- ment of Türkiye, Greece, and the United Kingdom as guarantors. The Greek Cypriot side did not give the 1960 Re- public a chance to exist in its initial state. Instead, they sought to change the structure of the Republic of Cyprus, as established by the agreements above, to exclude and isolate the Turkish Cypriots from state institutions, to end their existence on the Is- land, and to pave the way for Cyprus’s unification with Greece (ENOSIS). Then-President Makarios began to argue that the Zurich and London Agreements granted the Tur- kish Cypriots privileges that exceeded what was fair, and that the 1960 Constitution was ineffecti- ve, while emphasising that Enosis was the primary objective of the Greeks at every opportunity. Vice President Fazıl Küçük (PhD) was provided with a proposal containing 13 items for the November 30, 141 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 1963 amendment of the constitution, which inclu- ded the abolition of the veto power of the Turkish Vice President. The Turkish Cypriots and Türkiye rejected these amendment proposals on Decem- ber 16, 1963. In response, the Greek Cypriots launched extensi- ve and systematic attacks on the Turkish Cypriots on December 21, 1963. Turkish Cypriots were exc- luded from government institutions. This campa- ign, known as "Bloody Christmas," was based on the "Akritas Plan" that had been devised before. The Akritas Plan, which envisions the annihilati- on or expulsion of the Turks from the Island, is not only an organisation's action plan but an attempt at ethnic cleansing devised by the Greek Cypri- ot authorities. The attacks forced approximately thirty thousand Turkish Cypriots to abandon 103 villages. In 1963, the Greek Cypriots unilateral- ly and violently abolished the constitution of the 1960-established Republic of Cyprus. After the "Bloody Christmas" events of 1963, a "pe- ace-keeping force" comprised of soldiers from the three guarantor nations was formed on December 27, 1963, and Lefkoşa was split into two on Decem- ber 30, 1963. This border has since been known as the "Green Line." In accordance with the Resolution 186 of the UN Security Council of March 4, 1964, the UN Peace- keeping Force (UNFICYP) was then stationed on the Island. With this resolution, the Greek Cypri- ots, the usurpers of the administration, were re- cognised as the "Government," and the Turkish Cypriots' sovereign equal status was disregarded. The resolution 186 of the United Nations Secu- rity Council continues to be one of the primary reasons why the Cyprus issue cannot be resolved today since it maintains an unjust status disparity between the parties. The UN Peacekeeping Force deployed on the Island as a result of the decision above was insufficient to prevent Greek Cypriot's attacks against Turkish Cypriots. Nicos Sampson, the leader of the terrorist organi- sation EOKA, seized power in a coup d'état on July 15, 1974, with the backing of the Greek military jun- ta. In the face of this situation, Türkiye proposed to the United Kingdom to take joint action within the framework of the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee. Consi- dering the safety of Turks living on the Island, our Cyprus Peace Operation began on July 20, 1974, af- ter the UK's negative response. Thus, the annexati- on of Cyprus by Greece was averted, and the conti- nued existence of the Turkish Cypriot population was ensured. As a result of the meeting between Denktaş and Makarios on February 12, 1977, the High-Level Ag- reement of February 12, 1977, was signed. It was determined to construct a bi-communal federal republic with this four-article agreement. The Ten-Point Agreement was reached in May 1979 during the Denktaş-Kiprianu meeting, again at the request of the Turkish Cypriot side. This Agre- ement verifies the 1977 Agreement, and included a provision highlighting the significance of foste- ring an environment of goodwill and reciprocal trust. The Greek Cypriots, on the other hand, per- sisted in openly demonstrating that they had not changed their stance on disregarding the rights of the Turkish Cypriots. As the Greek Cypriot side did not abandon its 142 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD mentality that saw itself as the "only owner of the Island" and the Turkish Cypriots as a "minority," the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was dec- lared on November 15, 1983, based on the right of the Turkish Cypriots to self-determination and emphasising their political equality. Founding President Rauf Raif Denktaş announced to the entire world the official establishment of the state with the following words: "Expressing the legitimate and irrepressible will of the Turkish Cypriot people, we hereby declare be- fore the world and history the establishment of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus." On this path, the argument for federation was ma- intained, and a call for peace and a resolution was made to the Greek Cypriot side. Attempts for the Cyprus negotiation process acce- lerated in the second half of 1999. In a statement on November 14, 1999, Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan said, "the parties have agreed to start proximity talks in New York on De- cember 3, in order to prepare the ground for me- aningful negotiations leading to a comprehensive settlement." The final version of the Plan, which was prepared as a result of the talks, was submit- ted to the approval of the two peoples of Cyprus on April 24, 2004, with referendums held in the Gre- ek Cypriot Administration and the TRNC. While 75.83 per cent of the Greek population rejected the Plan, 64.91 per cent of the Turkish Cypriot popula- tion voted "yes" despite the numerous challenges it would pose for them. Although the international community was aware of the Turkish Cypriots' well-intentioned approa- ch, and it was reflected in Kofi Annan's report, the Greek Cypriot Administration was recognised as a full member of the EU on May 1, 2004, under the so-called "Republic of Cyprus." In 2008, negotiations for the solution to the Cyprus issue restarted. The Cyprus Conference, the last round of the negotiations, was held in Crans-Mon- tana, Switzerland, from June 29 to July 7, 2017. The two parties on the Island, as well as our country and other guarantor states, the United Kingdom, Greece, and the European Union (EU) as observer, participated in the conference. Due to the rigorous, uncompromising, and unreasonable approach of the Greek Cypriots and the Greeks, it was impos- sible for the conference to yield results; in the early morning hours of July 7, it was announced that the conference ended with no outcomes. At the end of the meeting, Türkiye and the Turkish Cypriot side stressed that the federation model had not yielded results for nearly 50 years due to the mentality of the Greek Cypriot side, which did not want to sha- re power and wealth, and that another 50 years should not be lost, so new solution-oriented ideas should be prioritised. The Turkish Cypriots demonstrated their willing- ness to negotiate a two-state solution during the TRNC Presidential Elections, the second round of which was held on October 18, 2020. A new era in 143 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD the Cyprus issue began with the election of Ersin Tatar, who supported a two-state solution, as the President of the TRNC. As a result of the contacts and negotiations, the in- formal "5+UN" meeting proposed by our Minister of Foreign Affairs Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu as a way out was held and hosted by UN Secretary-General Gu- terres on April 27-29, 2021, in Geneva, with the par- ticipation of the Turkish and Greek Cypriot sides and the guarantor countries Türkiye, Greece, and the United Kingdom. Within the scope of the meeting, President Ersin Tatar of the TRNC explained in detail why the fe- deration model failed to provide any solution to the Cyprus issue in the last 50 years, and he poin- ted out that sovereign equality and equal interna- tional status of the Turkish Cypriot people should be reaffirmed first, and then two states can launch negotiations in order to establish a cooperative relationship. Accordingly, he submitted a written proposal. On the other hand, the Greek Cypriot side did not come up with any new ideas, pursu- ed its intransigent attitude and insisted on the resumption of the negotiations from where they were “left off” in Crans-Montana in July 2017, and supported the federation model. Following the meeting, the UN Secretary-General stated that "sufficient common ground could not be found" to launch formal negotiations between the parties; however, efforts would be continued. The Cyprus issue has been on the agenda of the international community since the Greek Cypriots attempted to usurp the state in 1963 by excluding the Turkish Cypriots from the partnership state founded in 1960 and renouncing the agreement to live together and rule the Island together. The Tur- kish Cypriot side and Türkiye have never accepted this illegal and illegitimate situation that preven- ted the Turkish Cypriots from exercising their ri- ghts as equal partners of the state established in 1960; instead, they have exerted all of their efforts to find a fair solution to the issue. Since the Greek Cypriot side did not want to sha- re power and prosperity with the Turkish Cyp- riot side, the bi-zonal, bi-communal federation model established in the High Level Agreements of 1977-1979 and negotiated for years was unable to end the Cyprus issue. All efforts to find a solu- tion failed due to the Greek Cypriots' dominating mentality and uncompromising attitude during the negotiation process. The two most concrete examples of this approach are the Crans-Montana process in 2017 and the Annan Plan referendum in 2004. The bi-zonal, bi-communal federation mo- del has been tried for many years but has always failed and been exhausted. Resolutions of the UN Security Council on this issue no longer reflect the consent of the two sides on the Island. In this regard, considering the fact that there are currently two different peoples and two separate states on the Island today, Türkiye and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus maintain their cons- tructive stance toward the registration of the in- herent sovereign equality and equal international status of the Turkish Cypriots, which were usur- ped in 1963, and then toward commencement of result-oriented negotiations for a just, comprehen- sive and sustainable solution for the cooperation between the two states on the Island. 144 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD U nder the leadership of our President, the Republic of Türkiye, which has become an actor in international relations and whose sphere of influence and interest is expand- ing day by day; carries out the most comprehen- sive and intense activities in the history of the Re- public in this sensitive period when uncertainty, risks, threats, and dangers increase at the global and regional level, the security is reshaped, and the balance of power is constantly changing. Türkiye continues to fight against terrorism at home and across the borders for its sovereignty, independence and security of its citizens; to pro- tect our rights and interests in our Blue Home- land and skies; to contribute to regional and glob- al peace, inspired by its ancestors who brought peace, tranquility and justice to three continents. At a time when terrorism and irregular migration threaten countries, and particularly our country, our borders are protected by the notion that "The border is honour" by Mehmetçik, 24 hours a day, seven days a week, in all types of extreme weather and field conditions, with the most intense and ef- fective measures ever taken by the Republic. Türkiye has become a country that has reached the power to neutralize the attacks against its ex- istence and unity not on its own territory but di- rectly at its source. Therefore, our country contin- ues to struggle against all terrorist organizations, especially FETO, PKK/KCK/PYD-YPG, DEASH, with an understanding of neutralizing terror- ism and terrorists at their source with increasing strength and speed. Our struggle will continue un- til the last terrorist is neutralized. Our efforts to end the 40-year terror scourge on our glorious nation continue under the motto, "I will be a martyr if I die and a ghazi (veteran) if I survive." The Republic of Türkiye respects all its neighbors' sovereignty and territorial integrity. However, Türkiye cannot be expected to tolerate the ter- rorist threat directed against it just adjacent to its borders. In this context, all the operations carried out by the TAF are within the scope of our self-de- fense rights arising from Article 51 of the UN Char- ter, only targeting terrorist elements in the region. With the 'Claw' series of operations carried out in the north of Iraq to eliminate terrorist attacks against our people and security forces from the north of Iraq and Syria and to ensure the safety of our borders and citizens, the areas designated as "impossible to enter" and used as headquarters, supply centres, and so on, were entered. With the four major operations carried out in northern Syr- ia (Operation Euphrates Shield in 2016, Operation Olive Branch in 2018, Operation Peace Spring in FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISTS 146 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 2019, and Bahar Kalkanı Operations in 2020), the terror corridor desired to be established in the south of our country was prevented and the secu- rity of our borders was ensured. The aforementioned operations were carried out with due sensitivity to avoid harming civilians, historical, cultural, and religious structures, the environment, and friendly and allied countries while respecting neighboring countries' sover- eignty and territorial integrity. These operations contributed to global and regional security as a NATO member country. As a result of the operations carried out by all se- curity forces as a whole and in coordination, and as a result of the pressure created by the measures taken at the borderline and beyond, the move- ment and action capability of terrorist organiza- tions has been significantly hindered. As a result, many terrorists were neutralized, caves, shelters, warehouses, and so-called headquarters of terror- ists were destroyed, and many life materials and organizational documents were seized. As a state that shares a more than 1,300 km border with Iraq and Syria, Türkiye has been the coun- try most affected by the DAESH threat and at- tacks. Türkiye has always been at the forefront of the NATO member countries in the fight against DAESH, and as the only NATO country fighting DAESH hand to hand, it has shown its determina- tion to eliminate this threat to the whole world. As a result, more than 4,000 DAESH terrorists have been neutralized in northern Syria, and 100,000 DAESH members have been prevented from en- tering Türkiye. Türkiye has fought against those that destabilise the region and deprive civilians the right to live, particularly the bloody PKK/KCK/PYD-YPG ter- rorist organisations, which tries to legitimate itself in international public opinion by claiming to be fighting DEASH. Given its historical and cultural ties, Türkiye will continue to stand with the Syri- an people, caring for the innocent and oppressed in accordance with the motto "Let the people live so the state lives. The terrorist organisation PKK/KCK/PYD-YPG continues to operate in Manbij and Tal Rifat to the east of the Euphrates, and it continues to launch assaults from there, despite agreements with the United States and the Russian Federation. As in the past, all essential measures will be taken in self-defense against these attacks. The struggle against FETO continues in light of new information, documents, and data gathered through a holistic approach and determination. All public institutions and organizations, espe- cially our security forces, are getting stronger as they are freed of FETO. In addition to the sacrifice and heroism of the TAF personnel, domestic and national technol- ogies also play an essential role in the successful completion of domestic and cross-border opera- tions. The possibilities and capabilities of the TAF -equipped with high-tech domestic and national weapon systems in line with the era's require- ments- have been increased. Thus, our army has been made more effective, deterrent, and respect- able against all kinds of existing and potential threats and dangers. Our defense industry, which is almost 80% domes- tic and national, continues to be a force multiplier for the Turkish Armed Forces in the fight against terrorism, thanks to the design, production, and R&D studies. Our country, particularly in recent years, has ad- vanced to the point where it not only employs but also creates and even exports technology through purposeful strategies. Previously supplied from 147 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD outside, infantry rifles are now designed by our engineers and manufactured in the factories of Mechanical and Chemical Industries Corporation. In this context, Bayraktar TB-2, Akıncı, Aksungur, ANKA, Serçe, Kargu for unmanned air vehicle, Hürjet, Hürkuş, and Atak for aircraft/helicopter platforms, Fırtına, Kirpi, Vuran, ZMA, MEMATT vehicles for land platforms, Multi-Purpose Am- phibious Assault Ship, Offshore Patrol Vessel, MİLGEM, New Type Submarine for underwater and surface platforms, SOM, ATMACA, Cirit, OM- TAS, UMTAS, Sungur missiles and ammunition, Hisar-O within the scope of Air Defense Systems, VURAL, KORAL, MİLKAR and MILKED as part of radar, and electronic warfare systems are pro- duced and developed by our Turkish Defense In- dustry with domestic and national resources. The contributions of these systems to counter-ter- rorism activities at tactical, operative, and strate- gic levels in domestic and cross-border operation- al areas such as Azerbaijan, Syria, Iraq, and Blue Homeland are significant. Furthermore, maintaining the readiness of im- portant warfare weapon systems in our inventory is critical to boosting the combat effectiveness of our troops. For this purpose, our Military Facto- ries and Shipyards provide maintenance and re- pair support in the operation area and behind the zone with approximately 26,000 personnel, each of whom is an expert in their field. As a result, our proactive defense and security policy, which aims to eliminate threats, especial- ly terrorism, beyond our borders, at their source, will keep our national security and interests un- der guarantee while simultaneously contributing to the common goals of humanity. Any threat to our stability, borders, and our region will never be tolerated, and our fight against all terrorist organ- izations, especially FETO, PKK/KCK/PYD-YPG, and DAESH, will intensify and accelerate, with the goal of neutralising terrorism and terrorists at their source. O n July 15, 2016, Türkiye faced a coup at- tempt by a group affiliated with the Fetul- lah Terrorist Organisation (FETO), which had infiltrated the Turkish Armed Forces. The putschists bombed and fired upon the Presidency, Parliament, Police Departments, Bosphorus Bri- dges, Çankaya Mansion, military facilities in Göl- başı, the National Intelligence Organisation (MIT), and the citizens who opposed the coup, particular- ly in Ankara and Istanbul, using tanks and planes. The coup plotters attempted to assassinate our President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and bombed the Assembly that governed the Turkish War of Independence. If the coup attempt had been suc- cessful, thousands of innocent people would have died, and democracy and freedoms would have been destroyed. The FETO's coup attempt was thwarted by the unification of the State and nati- on. The Turkish people fought heroically. On the evening of July 15, 2016, when it was repor- ted that soldiers were controlling bridges, cros- sroads, and airports, many people did not consi- der this to be a coup attempt. This is because the Fetullah Terrorist Organisation (FETO) tried to create the perception that it was a "service move- ment" that embraced the understanding of "mo- derate Islam" until the 2010s and was tolerant and respectful of democratic values and "based on interreligious dialogue." FETO followed a stra- tegy based on infiltrating strategically important institutions of the state, such as the judiciary, the Police, and the Turkish Armed Forces, rather than undermining the existing system by concealing its intent to seize control of the state. A large part of the organisation's structure consists of the state structure known as "Governmental Offices (Deva- ir-i Devlet)". This structuring occurred within an organised chain of command rather than anarchic devotion. In parallel, the organisation appointed an "imam" to serve as the head of each division un- der which the State was organised and used these "imams" to carry out its operations in institutions. Even though FETO had an extensive structure wit- hin the state, it remained undetected for a consi- derable amount of time, and when it was uncove- red, he swiftly eliminated individuals who posed a threat to him by different means, including assas- sination. The coup attempt that occurred on the evening of July 15, 2016, exposed FETO's intent to seize the State and establish sovereignty. The organisation conducted several preparations before actually attempting a coup attempt. The Atabeyler, Ergenekon, and Balyoz (Sledgehammer) Trials serve as the first examples of these prepara- tions. In all of these cases, which were similar in JULY 15 COUP ATTEMPT 150 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD many ways, forged digital documents, anonymous e-mails, and perjurers were involved, and many soldiers and civilians were detained. It could be seen that the main purpose of these trials, in whi- ch various journalists and intellectuals, particu- larly Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) members, were tried as defendants, was primarily to control the Turkish Armed Forces through unlawful metho- ds and to create a preliminary preparation for the July 15 coup attempt. With the above-mentioned conspiracy instances, FETO eliminated soldiers at various ranks and positioned its own elements within the TAF among these cadres. These ele- ments, which were infiltrated into the TAF, played an active role in the coup attempt on July 15. De- cember 17/25, 2013, conspiracy investigations were essential for disclosing the operational abilities and capacities of FETO, particularly in the police and the judiciary, within the state, and internatio- nally. With this initiative, it has become clear that it is essential to continue the fight against FETO in a multidimensional and comprehensive manner. The militants of FETO, who aimed to put Türkiye in a difficult situation, plotted against the govern- ment and state institutions in our country using fake evidence and documents with the support and guidance of global powers. The process, whi- ch began with the summons of Undersecretary Hakan Fidan of the National Intelligence Organi- sation (MIT) to testify on February 7, 2012, conti- nued with the 17-25 December operations and the January 1-19, 2014 operations against MIT trucks. Trucks supervised by MIT were halted in Adana and Hatay, and the operation directed by a FETO militant prosecutor was provided to the foreign press within a short period of time. Concurrently with the stopping of the MIT trucks, efforts were made to portray Türkiye as a supporter of terrorist organisations. FETO, which intended to defame and undermine both the elected AK Party Govern- ment and the Republic of Türkiye through alleged accusations and operations, was unable to achieve its objective. 151 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD How Did the Coup Attempt Take Place? According to the indictment on events at the Akın- cı Air Base, which was utilised as the command centre during the FETO coup attempt, the events that occurred on the day of the July 15, 2016 coup attempt at Akıncı Base began at around 4.00 p.m. and finished around 1.00 p.m. the following day. There was turmoil in public institutions following the report of the pilot major identified as H.T., who arrived at MIT on July 15 around 3.30 p.m. to disclose the plans of FETO member soldiers wit- hin the TAF to attack the MIT and Undersecretary Hakan Fidan of the MIT. Following the report, Un- dersecretary Hakan Fidan of the MIT informed the 2nd Chief of General Staff, Gen. Yaşar Güler, by phone. Later, Yaşar Güler briefed Chief of Gene- ral Staff Gen. Hulusi Akar on the information he had received and recommended that Mr Fidan be summoned to the General Staff Headquarters. Mr Fidan, who arrived at the headquarters at about 06.00 p.m., stated that "this report could be part of a larger plan" and that "some operation will be conducted." Hulusi Akar contacted the Armed For- ces Operation Centre and issued the order to ban all military flights in Turkish airspace and land all aircraft. As mobilisation increased, the putschists grew concerned that the coup would fail, so they changed the intended coup attempt timing from 3 a.m. on July 16, 2016, to 8.30 p.m. Major General Mehmet Dişli, a member of FETO, entered the of- fice of Chief of General Staff, Gen. Hulusi Akar, at around 9 p.m., read the text in his hand, and no- tified Akar that the coup had begun. After Hulusi Akar refused to be persuaded and resisted, Dişli and the putschist soldiers placed plastic handcuf- fs on Akar's wrists. At around 11.03 p.m., putschist Mehmet Dişli and the soldiers next to him escor- ted Chief of General Staff Gen. Hulusi Akar out of the A-1 Gate and onto a helicopter for transport to Akıncı Air Base. While these incidents were occurring in Anka- ra, there was also unrest in other cities of Türki- ye around 9.45 p.m. E5 highway, TEM highway, Bosphorus, and Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridges in Is- tanbul were closed to traffic; tanker aircrafts were taken off to be refuelled at Incirlik 10th Tanker Base Command in Adana, and the F-16 jets that took part in the coup were refuelled. The reconnaissan- ce aircraft Gören, which had been brought from Kayseri, took off from Akıncı Air Base at 10.20 p.m. in order to determine the coordinates, and the co- ordinates of the Special Operations Department of the General Directorate of Security in Gölbaşı were entered into the system. As these events occurred, news channels began informing the public about the events and relaying information about the at- tempt. At approximately 10:20 p.m., the 'martial law ins- tructions' communication was issued to the com- mand and ministries. With the "martial law inst- ructions" prepared by the putschists, it was stated that the administration was seized within the TAF's chain of command, and for this purpose, "Pe- ace at Home Council" was formed, that martial law and curfew were declared throughout the country, that the appointment and assignments of the state would be made by this council, that the actions to be taken other than this, were null and void, that the current executive body was dismissed and the 152 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Parliament was dissolved, that all governors, dist- rict governors, and mayors would be appointed by the council, that the activities of political parties were terminated, and the police forces were placed under the command of martial law commanders. At 11.02 p.m., then-Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım addressed the public on several TV channels, an- nouncing that this attempt was carried out by a group of FETO soldiers. Talking to a television channel, Prime Minister Yıldırım stated that there was a "coup attempt" and that this attempt would not be allowed. Later, security sources stated, "The military coup is being attempted by a group of of- ficers in the army who are members of the Fetul- lah Terrorist Organisation/Parallel State Structure (FETO/PSS)." As in the past, the coup plotter sol- diers who occupied the TRT building at 12.13 a.m. on July 16, 2016, had the coup statement read on TRT. At this time, Chief of General Staff Hulusi Akar, who refused to participate in the coup attempt, was forcibly transported to the Akıncı Air Base via helicopter. At approximately 11.05 p.m., Meh- met Partigöç informed Akın Öztürk that if Chief of General Staff General Hulusi Akar could not be persuaded, he would be appointed as the Chief of General Staff. Despite the call for the landing of the unauthorised aircraft at 11.09 p.m., these flights were continued upon the instruction given by Co- lonel Ahmet Özçetin. At 11.18 p.m., these aircraft bombed the General Directorate of Security Avia- tion Department in the Gölbaşı district of Ankara with the notion that they would resist the coup at- tempt. Seven people were martyred as a result of the bombing. This attempt's most active and bloody actions took place in the first minutes of July 16. At exa- ctly 12.03 a.m., the General Directorate of Security Special Operations Department was targeted, as it was the most important force that could resist the coup, besides the governmental and the civili- an will, and as it performed important duties aga- inst the coup attempt. In this attack, 44 members of the police special operations were killed, and numerous police officers were injured. Moreover, the bombing caused significant financial damage to the Special Operations Department building. Si- multaneously, helicopters under the control of the coup plotters opened fire on the MIT (National In- telligence Organisation) headquarters in Ankara. Members of the MIT responded to this attack, and the conflict continued sporadically throughout the night; it was impossible for the coup plotters to enter and operate within the MIT. At around 12.13 a.m., TRT news anchor Tijen Karaş was forced to read the coup declaration on behalf of the Peace at Home Council on the state television TRT seized by the coup plotters from the Presidential Guard Regiment. The declaration stated that "martial law" was declared in the whole country and that the Turkish Armed Forces seized the government. After receiving news of the coup attempt in Muğla/ Marmaris, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan took a helicopter to the Dalaman Airport and then a pla- ne to İstanbul. At around 12.20 a.m., to prevent the President from arriving at Ankara, several F-16 jets took off from the Akıncı Air Base and flew over Polatlı in the direction of Afyon. Subsequently, the 153 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD same jets flew low over Ankara and returned to the Akıncı Air Base roughly an hour later. At around 12.24 a.m., President Erdoğan first connected to the CNN Turkish news channel and then to other news channels on video and altered the course of events with his historic speeches. President Erdo- ğan addressed the public via teleconference and said, "Today's development is, unfortunately, an attempt by a minority within our Armed Forces. It is an attempt perpetrated by the parallel struc- ture. They will receive the necessary punishment, a good response, from our people against this at- tempt to ruin the unity, integrity and togetherness of our people." Erdoğan reminded the people that he was the Commander-in-Chief as the head of the "Republic" and urged the people to gather in the squares to resist this attempt. After President Erdoğan's speech, the salas were recited in the mosques, and the citizens took to the streets to resist this attempt as they understood its nature. At 12.56 a.m., F-16 jets dropped two bombs on the Ankara Provincial Police Department building, which did not surrender to the coup plotters; 2 people were killed, and dozens were injured as a result of the attack. Shortly after, at 01.08 a.m., the Ankara Provincial Police Department building and its surroundings were bombed for the second time. Around 12.57 a.m., coup plotters tried to se- ize TÜRKSAT to interrupt and control television broadcasts. In this attack, two TÜRKSAT security guards were killed, but the coup plotters could not halt television broadcasts and instead attempted to bomb this location. The Turkish Grand National Assembly (GNAT) was among the important institutions that were damaged due to the bombings. After deputies from all political parties took a stand against the coup and gathered in the Assembly, dozens of pe- ople were injured as a result of the bombing by warplanes at 02.40 a.m., and the Assembly sus- tained significant financial damage. At around 03.24 a.m., a second attack was organised. F-16 jets dropped two additional bombs on the GNAT. At 02.30 a.m., President Erdoğan departed from the hotel in Marmaris, where he had been sta- ying with his family and set off for İstanbul. A few 154 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD minutes later, four helicopters carrying the coup plotters from the Combat Search and Rescue and the Special Forces departing from the Çiğli Base in İzmir attacked the hotel in Marmaris where Pre- sident Erdoğan and his family had been staying. At around 03.00 a.m., the coup soldiers' raid on the TRT was ended by the intervention of citizens and the police, and the coup soldiers were appre- hended. As of 04.00 a.m., the Ankara Public Pro- secutor's Office immediately initiated the judicial process in relation to this coup attempt and issu- ed a detention order for the FETO-affiliated judi- cial officers, generals, admirals, and other Peace at Home Council soldiers. Tens of thousands of people gathered at the Ata- türk Airport in response to President Erdoğan's call, and the coup plotters were neutralised. Police teams took back the Atatürk Airport tower with an operation. The coup plotters at the airport were taken into custody. At the same time, the ATA aircraft carrying President Erdoğan and his family was over İstanbul. After ensuring airport security, the ATA aircraft carrying President Erdo- ğan landed at 03.30 a.m. at the Atatürk Airport, concealing its identity under all the threats posed by F-16 jets under the control of the coup plotters. As time progressed, it was understood that the coup plotters' plans would not succeed. At around 06.00 a.m., the F-16 jets used by the coup plotters continued to take off without permission and did not respond to the calls. At around 06.19 a.m., the bridge intersection and parking lot near the Pre- sidential Complex were bombed by an unautho- rised F-16 jet. As a result of the attack, 15 people were martyred, and seven people were injured. A military aircraft dropped a bomb near the Pre- sidential Complex at the intersection where the Gendarmerie General Command was located. According to reports, the soldiers who controlled the Bosphorus Bridge during the attempted coup surrendered to the police at approximately 06.40 a.m. Around 07.00 a.m., the coup plotters increa- sed their activity at the military facility at the İs- tanbul Atatürk Airport. Two helicopters landed at the military facility there. Later, the military per- sonnel in this helicopter were apprehended by the police forces. Later on, the police took an active role and con- tinued to detain the FETO-affiliated soldiers. At 08.36 a.m., General Directorate of Security Special Operations police officers detained the FETO-affi- liated soldiers in the Gendarmerie General Com- mand. As a result of the operation organised at the Ankara Akıncı Main Jet Base Command at 08.32 a.m., Chief of General Staff Hulusi Akar was freed. Around 09.40 a.m., approximately 200 soldiers who left the General Staff Headquarters surrende- red to the police. In the coup attempt, more than 8,000 soldiers, 35 aircraft, 37 helicopters, 74 tanks, 246 armoured vehicles and nearly 4,000 small arms were used. This was more than the force used in the coup on May 27, 1960. It was understood, however, that the number remained at this level due to the fact that the coup attempt was executed earlier than plan- ned, and far more preparation had been made than was realised. In addition, similar to its pre- vious operating methods, it was determined that 155 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD FETO did not initially reveal its entire staff in the planning of the coup and intended to gradually utilise a significant portion of its members for post-coup processes. The FETO coup attempt, which a group of FE- TO-affiliated officers initiated on Friday, July 15 at 10.00 p.m. at the General Staff Headquarters, was brought under control and neutralised th- roughout the entire country on Saturday, July 16 at 08.02 p.m., approximately 22 hours later. 251 people, including 182 civilians, were killed, and 2,194 people were injured after aircraft, helicop- ters, tanks, and armoured vehicles opened fire on the civilian population and security officers who resisted the coup. At the Çankaya Mansion, Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım officially announ- ced that the coup attempt was suppressed at 12.57 p.m. However, with the call of the President and the Government, millions of people continued to stand guard in the squares until morning for we- eks. The Turkish people have strengthened their unity and solidarity in opposition to all terrorist organisations, as they knocked the wind out of the traitors and all evil organisations' sails. Historical information and data on the July 15 Coup Attempt can also be accessed on the website "15temmuz.gov.tr". DID YOU KNOW? 156 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T he defense mission of the Republic of Tür- kiye is to establish a deterrent Armed For- ces equipped with national and domestic weapon systems in line with national security and defense policy, capable of conducting operations in land, sea, air, cyber, and space areas with global reach, provide and train qualified personnel who will use this power with modern techniques and strategies, contribute to the creation of defense and security policies, and protect the survival of Türkiye, its rights, interests, and interests beyond our home- land, Blue Homeland, and our skies, make the Tur- kish Armed Forces effective, deterrent and respec- table against all existing and potential threats and dangers and to use them when necessary. The Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) fulfills the duties assigned by the Constitution, laws, and other legal regulations and within this scope; a. Defending our country against external dangers and threats, b. Protecting our borders, c. Supporting the fight against terrorism, c. Contributing to international peace and stability, d. It supports Law Enforcement Forces (Police and Gendarmerie) and civil institutions. Our vision is to ensure the security and defense of our country and nation, with the inspiration we get from our glorious history and the strength we derive from our national and moral values, in line with the goal of a strong Türkiye with global influences. Military and Humanitarian Activities Carried Out by the Turkish Armed Forces in the International Area Southeast European Defense Ministers Process: The Southeastern Europe Defense Ministerial (SEDM) Process, which aims to improve regional security, stability, and cooperation and strengthen good neighborly relations in Southeastern Europe, started in 1996 with the initiatives of Türkiye and the USA. Within the scope of SEDM, projects are car- ried out on a voluntary rotation basis. USA, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Türkiye, Ukraine, Greece, and Ge- orgia participate in the process as full members and Moldova as an observer. South-Eastern Europe Brigade: Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, Macedonia, Roma- DEFENSE AND SECURITY 158 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD nia, and Türkiye contribute to the South-Eastern Europe Brigade (SEEBRIG), which was established in 1999 under the leadership of Türkiye and by Alba- nia, Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, Macedonia, and Türkiye to ensure the continuation of regional security and stability in Southeast Europe and the Balkans. UN Mission in Kosovo: UN Mission in Kosovo (United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo-UNMIK) was established by UNSC Resolution 1244 on 10 June 1999. Based on the UN's request, TAF has been cont- ributing to this Mission with one staff member since 2011. In addition, a staff member has been employed for the Information Operations Consultancy Cadre sin- ce 2022. UN Interim Force Naval Task Force: In 2006, due to the crisis and conflicts in Lebanon, the United Nations Interim Force In Lebanon (UNI- FIL) Naval Task Force was established by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) with Resolution No. 1701 dated August 11, 2006. To detect the entry of prohibited weapons and ma- terials into Lebanese territorial waters and ports, support is provided to the UNIFIL Maritime Task Force with frigates/corvettes belonging to the Naval Forces Command and three Turkish officers ser- ving as liaison officers in Lebanon by article No. 880 adopted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on September 05, 2006. Combined Task Force 151: In order to support international efforts to combat piracy/maritime piracy and armed robbery, in ac- cordance with the UN Security Council Resolutions 1816, 1838, 1846, 1851, 1897 and 1918, adopted betwe- en 2008 and 2010, Türkiye has been deploying TAF naval elements together with the naval forces of friendly and allied countries in the Gulf of Aden and adjacent regions since 2009. Türkiye contributes to the activities in the region by assigning ships and personnel under the Joint Task Force-151 or utilizing vessels under national control. Turkish Naval Task Group: In Libya, where we have 500 years of historical fra- ternal ties, Türkiye has been the only country that concretely responded to and supported the UN-re- cognized legitimate government's calls for help. With the invitation of the Government of Natio- nal Unity and the approval of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye, in order to contribute to the formation of a Libya that has ensured its territorial integrity and political unity, living in peace, tranqu- illity and stability with the understanding, "Libya belongs to the Libyans," military training, mine/IED clearance, health, humanitarian aid and consultan- cy supports, which began on January 13, 2020, con- tinue. Due to the internal turmoil and the changing se- curity situation in Libya, the Turkish Naval Task Group, which was formed in the Central Mediterra- nean, and the Operation Mediterranean Shield and Operation Sea Guardian as of 2020, are involved in ensuring the security of maritime trade routes. Azerbaijan Task Force Command: As a result of the victory of the "One Homeland Operation" carried out by Azerbaijan, within the fra- mework of the Turkish-Russian Joint Center Agree- ment signed on November 11, 2021, we will continue to be one heart with our Azerbaijani brothers in the process of overseeing and supervising the implemen- tation of the Agreement, and in the process of resto- ring peace and tranquility in the region. Therefore, with the approval of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye, TAF elements were assigned to Azerbaijan. 159 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD "Two states, one nation!" aimed to restructure the Azerbaijani Armed Forces and develop joint capa- bilities. Within the framework of the approach, mili- tary training and cooperation activities, which were initiated for the Armed Forces of the two countries to work together more effectively, continue. Duties Performed within NATO: As NATO's 70-year-old member and its second-lar- gest Army, Türkiye contribute to NATO headquar- ters and force structure staff with approximately 2,000 personnel. The 3rd Corps Command (Istanbul) is one of nine NATO Rapid Deployable Corps (NRDC-T) as a High Readiness Force in the NATO force structure. The Corps successfully completed the NATO Land Com- ponent Command (LCC) mission, which it assumed in 2021. The 66th Mechanised Infantry Brigade Command (Çorlu/Tekirdağ) successfully carried out the duty of the Very High Readiness Joint Task Force Land Bri- gade (VJTF-L), which is at the highest readiness as NATO's immediate response force, in 2021. Additio- nally, the Initial Follow-On Forces Group (IFFG-45, IFFG-30) missions were undertaken in accordance with the VJTF mission over a preparation period of 45 days in 2020 and 7 days in 2022. Between 2002 and 2014, Türkiye contributed to NA- TO's peacekeeping mission in Afghanistan as part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and, since 2015, as part of the Resolute Support Mis- sion (RSM). Furthermore, within the scope of RSM, it assumed the framework country responsibility for the safe operation of Kabul Hamid Karzai Interna- tional Airport and returned home after successfully completing its mission with the termination of the NATO operation on August 28, 2021. Since 2018, Türkiye has been contributing to the NATO Iraq Mission (NMI), which was initiated to increase the capacity of the Iraqi Army. Furthermo- re, Türkiye currently supports existing NATO opera- tions [comprised of the Kosovo Force (KFOR), Ope- ration Maritime Guard (DMH), Combating Irregular Migration in the Aegean Sea], Standing Naval Forces (SNF, Standing NATO Maritime Group-SNMG-2, and Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Mari- time Group-SNMC-MG-2), NATO Response Force (NRF), NATO Readiness Initiative (NRI), Assurance Measures (AM), NATO Support to the African Uni- on (NS2AU), and NATO Integrated Air and Missile Defence System (NATINAMDS) with approximately 1,500 personnel and various war weapons, vehicles, and platforms. Furthermore, it is one of the count- ries that contributed the most to the European Uni- on ALTHEA Operation, which is carried out within the framework of the Dayton Peace Agreement to contribute to Bosnia and Herzegovina's peace, secu- rity, and tranquillity. Türkiye is the NATO member state in its region that provides the most contribution to the Standing Na- val Force of the NATO Response Force, which is kept available for NATO operations covered by Article 5 and for crisis response operations. Floating flying and diving elements of the Naval For- ces Command, which are assigned within the scope of the Operation Maritime Guard (DMH) carried out by NATO in the Mediterranean since 2020, contribu- te to regional security capacity building by suppor- ting the situational awareness at sea and the fight against terrorism. As a result, Türkiye is the country that contributes the most to the DMH among the 30 NATO members with its Naval Forces. The Maritime Security Center of Excellence, Tür- kiye's 2nd NATO accredited and NATO's 26th Center of Excellence started its activities nationally on No- vember 12, 2012, and reached the status of "Interna- tional Military Organization" on June 08, 2020. 160 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Our support to NATO was not limited to this; in addi- tion to the existing 4 (United Kingdom, France, Italy and Spain) High Readiness Level Naval Headquar- ters (HRF-M), TURMARFOR (The Turkish High Readiness Naval Task Force Force) was upgraded to "Initial Operational Capability" on July 01, 2021, and to "Full Operational Capability" on March 01, 2022. TURMARFOR will assume the NATO Response For- ce Naval Component Command (NRF-MCC) duties in 2023 and 2028 and Amphibious Task Force Com- mander / Landing Force Commander (CATF/CLF) in 2025. With these efforts, Türkiye is among the top five countries contributing most to NATO. From the Bal- kans to the Middle East and Afghanistan in the futu- re, as in the past and today; It will continue to be an active and constructive member of NATO from the Caucasus to Africa and beyond. Operation Mediterranean Shield: The Turkish Naval Forces Command has been con- ducting Operation Mediterranean Shield since April 1, 2006, to deter any risks and threats in the Eastern Mediterranean and to assist NATO's maritime secu- rity efforts there. Operation Black Sea Harmony: Operation Black Sea Harmony (KUH), launched on March 01, 2004; With the participation of maritime patrol planes and naval helicopters from the Naval Air Command, to show a flag/presence in the Bla- ck Sea with reference to Gölcük, Umuryeri and Ka- radeniz Ereğli, to monitor/control the activities of merchant ships in the Black Sea that are considered to be related to terrorism and illegal activities by the national/NATO authorities. It is carried out in order to monitor the activities of the ships passing through the straits with notification in the Black Sea and to contribute to maritime security. Coordinated support is provided with Bulgaria and Romania to mine surveillance activities within the framework of KUH; Mutual information sharing with Romania, Russia and Ukraine continues and information is shared with NATO. Border Security: The duty, authority and responsibility of protecting and ensuring the security of the land borders has been given to the Land Forces Command by the Law No. 3497 on the Protection and Security of Land Bor- ders. The duties of the security of our land borders and the prevention of all kinds of smuggling and illegal border crossings; It is carried out by five border bri- gades and seven border regiments, as well as reinfor- cement commandos and reconnaissance elements, using modern vehicles and the latest technological means, on a 24/7 basis, with great sacrifice and de- votion. In order to carry out these tasks more effectively, modular concrete walls, trenches and high-security wire fences were built at the borders. The troops on duty were reinforced with electro-optical tower, ele- vator tower, thermal camera, tunnel detection radar and tactical wheeled armored reconnaissance ve- hicles. Executed Exercises: National and joint exercises are carried out to estab- lish and develop the military capabilities of the TAF in a way that covers all the duties that can be given, to continue the preparation for war, to test and develop the current education level, to strengthen the armed forces and to demonstrate this when necessary. And also; To ensure interoperability, share experiences, develop and disseminate standards and standard implementation procedures, and improve NATO, regional and global security, and bilateral military cooperation, joint exercises in the form of unique 161 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and invitation activities are conducted with NATO, partnership and other friendly/allied countries. In the exercises carried out, our armed forces, with their highly qualified personnel and the opportu- nities and capabilities provided by our domestic/ national defense industry, increase their "effective, deterrent and respectable" qualities daily and add strength to their power. In the coming period, we will continue to keep the TAF's combat readiness at the highest level, increase cooperation with friendly and allied countries, and support regional/global peace simultaneously with our drills and training activities. Projects Carried out within the Scope of Loca- lity and Nationalization Policy in the TAF: It is of great importance to produce all kinds of we- apons, equipment, and ammunition needed by our Armed Forces with the possibilities of the national and domestic defense industry. The effectiveness of our weapon systems, produ- ced in NATO standards and tested in operations, has attracted the attention of the whole world, the demand for our domestic and national defense in- dustry products has increased day by day, and the "Made in Türkiye" brand has risen to the position it deserves in the international market. The most concrete example is that our defense exports, whi- ch were approximately 250 million dollars in 2002, rose to about 3 billion dollars in 2021, breaking a record. Moreover, with our President's leadership, encouragement, and support, the defense industry breakthroughs with a local and nationality rate of up to 80% have been a source of pride for our nation. While even infantry rifles were procured from abro- ad in the past, now National Infantry Rifles, smart precision ammunition, Multi Barrel Rocket Laun- chers, Storm Howitzers, UAV/SİHA/TİHAs, ATAK helicopters, frigates and warships are designed, bu- ilt and manufactured. In addition, these systems are also exported. Systems such as land, sea and air fire support vehicles, command and control systems, weapon systems, radars, and smart ammunition can now be produced largely with domestic and na- tional means. for the Land Forces; Hisar-A and Hisar-O Air Defen- se Missile Systems, ALTAY Tank, Land to Land Cru- ise Missile (KARA ATMACA), Heavy Class Attack Helicopter (ATAK 2) and Light Original Helicopter (GÖKBEY), KARAOK and OMTAS Anti-Tank Wea- pon Systems, Fırtına-2 Howitzer, Air Portable 105 mm Light Towed Howitzer (BORAN), Portable Air Defense Missile System to replace Stingers and Ele- ctric Armored Combat Vehicle projects, for the Navy; The first ship of the İSTİF Class Fri- gates (İSTANBUL), New Type Submarine, Mul- ti-Purpose Amphibious Ship (ANADOLU), Offsho- re Patrol Ship, Guided Missile System (ATMACA), National Modern Heavy Torpedo (AKYA), Marine Supply Combat Support Ship (DIMDEG) projects , for the Air Force; National Combat Aircraft, Nati- onal Mission Computer (ÖZGÜR) for F-16s, SIPER within the scope of Long Range Area Air and Missi- le Defense System, Precision Guided Stand-Off Mu- nition (SOM), Remote Electronic Attack and Sup- port Capability (SOJ), Air- Air Missile (GÖKTUĞ), Göktürk Satellite Renewal and Earth Observation Satellite Development (İMECE) projects, Within the scope of common needs; The National Joint Navigational Missile (GEZGIN) and Unman- ned Ground Vehicles projects, Bayraktar Akıncı Attack UAV System, TB-2 Tactical UAV System and Anka UAV system, with their high locality rate and performance, have become a source of pride for both our country and friendly and brotherly count- ries. The number of projects, which was 66 in 2002, has exceeded 750 as of 2022. 162 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD International Activities Conducted by the TAF within the Scope of Bilateral Relations Somalia The legal basis of our military training cooperati- on with Somalia is the Framework Agreement sig- ned in 2010 and the Military Training Cooperation Agreement signed in 2012. Furthermore, to ensure security in Somalia, the restructuring of the Soma- li Armed Forces started in 2012. In this context, the Somali Turkish Task Force (STGK) Command; was established to include the Military Academy, the NCO School, and the Somali Armed Forces Unity Training Center and was opened with a ceremony on September 30, 2017. Within the framework of the Military Education Cooperation Agreement signed between Türkiye and Somalia, assistance is provided in improving the organization, education, training, military in- frastructure, and logistics systems of the Somali Armed Forces. In addition, Turkish personnel was appointed consultants to the Somali Ministry of Defense, the General Staff, and the Land, Naval, and Air Forces Command to provide consultancy on the aforementioned issues. In addition to the consultan- cy activities, the assigned personnel also participa- tes in the Military Working Group activities carried out by international actors in Somalia to coordina- te the restructuring of Somali security units and counter-terrorism activities within the scope of the "Comprehensive Approach to Security (CAS)" mec- hanisms. STGK Command continues its duty with determi- nation and determination, in coordination with both Somali authorities and international actors, to represent the Turkish nation and TAF in the best possible way. Qatar “Cooperation Agreement between the Republic of Türkiye and the State of Qatar on Military Training, Defense Industry and the Deployment of the Tur- kish Armed Forces in Qatari Territories”, which al- lows our permanent deployment in Qatar, on June 15 2015, “Implementation Agreement on the Deploy- ment of Turkish Forces in Qatari Territories” April 28 2016 signed on. The purpose of deploying TAF elements on the territory of the State of Qatar is to support the de- velopment of the defense possibilities and capabi- lities of the Qatari Armed Forces and to contribute to regional and global peace through joint training and exercises to be carried out. Accordingly, in ac- cordance with the aforementioned agreements, the Qatar Land Component Command was deployed to the Tariq Bin Ziyad Barracks in Qatar on October 04, 2015, and has been operating at the newly constru- cted Khalid Ibn Walid Barracks since December 14, 2019. In addition, Qatar Combined Joint Force Com- mand, consisting of Qatari and Turkish personnel, continues joint training and exercises. Military service: According to article 72 of the Constitution of the Re- public of Türkiye, military service is the right and duty of every Turkish citizen. Mandatory military service in Türkiye, which is modern, predictable, has an equal length of service, enables the effective and efficient use of trained workforce, and contribu- tes to the specialization of the TAF; On the one hand, it allows our youth to contribute to the defense of our country and our nation by meeting the needs of our army, on the other hand, it helps them to conti- nue their education, training, and professional deve- lopment. Within the framework of the currently applied mili- tary status, a. Reserve Officer (12 Months Term) Those who have graduated from higher education institutions for four years or more are allocated as reserve officer candidates as much as the TAF needs. 163 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD b. Reserve Petty Officer (12 Months Term) Those who have graduated from higher education institutions for two or three years are allocated as reserve non-commissioned officer candidates as much as the TAF needs. c. Reserve Officer Teaching (12 Months) Upon the need of the Ministry of National Educati- on and the approval of the Ministry of National De- fense, those who are declared to be recruited among those who practice the teaching profession are gi- ven the order of the Ministry of National Education, following a one-month basic military training. The military service period of these obliged parties is 12 months, and they complete their military service as a reserve officer teacher in schools affiliated with the Ministry of National Education. c. Doctors Given to the Order of the Ministry of He- alth In each summons and assignment period, the num- ber and place of medical reserve officer candidates determined jointly by the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of National Defense are given to the Ministry of Health following basic military training. These obliged parties continue their duties in civil health institutions to be determined by the Ministry of Health for a period specified by the two Minist- ries. d. Private / Private (6 Months Term) Those who graduate from two-year higher educati- on institutions and from schools that provide edu- cation at a lower level and those who do not have the status of reserve officer or reserve non-com- missioned officer fulfill their military service as a non-commissioned officer for six months. e. Second Six Months Military Service (6 Months) Those willing to complete six-month military servi- ce and those with the qualifications written in the relevant Law and Regulation continue their military service for a limited period of six months from the date they are entitled to discharge, with the positive evaluation of the sequential disciplinary superiors. f. Paid Military Service (1 Month) Military service is performed on the condition that those who meet the eligibility conditions pay the price determined by the state and complete basic military training. g. Military Service with Foreign Currency (Distance Education) Among our citizens abroad, those who fulfill the de- termined procedures and principles are deemed to have fulfilled their military service. National Defense University (NDU): Military schools, war institutes, research institutes, non-commissioned officer vocational schools, and foreign languages schools are affiliated with MSU, including the educational institutions that train offi- cers and non-commissioned officers in the TAF. The mission of NDU is to train and develop outstan- ding officers and non-commissioned officers requ- ired by the Turkish Armed Forces, who are loyal to the principles of the democratic, secular, and social 164 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD state of law, to their homeland, nation, and state, who are equipped with the values of duty, honor, loyalty, and responsibility, who embrace Atatürk's principles and reforms, who think analytically, who are well-equipped and self-confident. The vision of NDU is to be one of the world's leading defense universities, where highly qualified/profes- sional officers and non-commissioned officers are trained to be a pioneer in education and research, especially in defense, security, and strategy, to lead change and development, and to be internationally recognized and respected. There are three War Schools within MSU: Land, Na- val and Air. At the War Schools, one year of English preparatory education and four years of undergra- duate education are provided, and graduates are awarded an officer's diploma and an engineering diploma depending on the branch of education. The programs at the War Schools also have international equivalencies. MSU also has a mission to train the non-commis- sioned officers of the future. MSU Vocational Scho- ols for Non-Commissioned Officers (MYO), located in four different cities, provide two-year associate degree education in line with the needs of the For- ce Commands. NCO Vocational Schools aim to train non-commissioned officers who have adopted lea- dership skills and core values, have military mana- gement and administration skills, and possess the required physical competencies. As in the War Scho- ols, practical military training is also conducted du- ring and at the end of the year. 165 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Within the Military Personnel in Residence (MAP) Training scope, 1086 personnel are currently being trained. Since 1935, 4,534 MAPs (1,702 officers, 2,151 cadets, and 681 non-commissioned officers) from 47 countries have received education at MSU-affiliated schools. In 2020, 322 MAPs from 24 friendly and allied countries started studying at the National Defense University (MSU). Of these 322 MAPs, 57 received education at the Force Warfare Institutes and Joint Warfare Institute and 12 at the Research Institutes. Of the remaining 253 MAPs, 232 joined the War Schools and Non-Commissioned Officer Vocational Schools, and 21 joined the Faculty and Higher Scho- ols (FYO) Command to study at the University of Health Sciences (SBU). In 2020, 281 MAPs gradua- ted from MSU, 241 from MSU-affiliated educational institutions, and 40 from MoHU FYO. In 2021, 376 MAPs from 23 different friendly and allied countries started to study at MSU. Of these MAPs, 95 received education at the Force Warfare Institutes and Joint Warfare Institute and 11 at the Research Institutes. Of the remaining 270 maps, 230 joined the War Schools and Non-Commissioned Officer Vocational Schools, and 22 joined the FYO Command to study at the MoHU. In addition, 13 MAPs received SUTASAK training at the KHO, and 5 MAPs received Medical Specialization training at the MoHU. In 2021, 239 MAPs graduated, 235 from MSU-affiliated educational institutions, and four from MoHU FYO. Currently (as of 20.07.2022), 1086 MAPs are stud- ying at MSÜ. When we look at the distribution of MAPs according to the institutions where they are learning, we see that 23 MAPs are studying at Rese- arch Institutes, 635 at War Schools, 162 at Non-Com- missioned Officer Vocational School, 32 at SUTA- SAK, and 234 at MoHU (Gülhane Medical Faculty: 157, Health Asb. Vocational School: 20 and Speciali- zation/Master's Degree/Course: 57). Within the 2022-2023 MAP Quota Plan, which will start in September, 780 quotas have been allocated to personnel from 31 different friendly and allied countries at MSU and SBU. Of these quotas, 185 were issued for Force Warfare Institutes and Joint Warfa- re Institute; 40 for Research Institutes; 305 for War Schools and Non-Commissioned Officer Vocational Schools; 35 for SUTASAK and ASTASAK; and 215 for MoHU (Gülhane Medical Faculty, Health Asb. Voca- tional School and Specialization/Master's Degree/ Course). Türkiye's Humanitarian Aid Repository: Turkish Red Crescent H umanitarian aid is described as "the ef- forts made to satisfy the needs following humanitarian crises such as disasters and conflicts and to prevent their recurrence", but it is also a multi-actor and multi-dimensional process undertaken to alleviate human suffering and safe- guard human dignity. In this process, individuals, societies, and institutions bear significant responsi- bility for mitigating disaster and crisis risks and en- hancing the resilience of those exposed to disasters or crises. With historical roots stretching back to the Otto- man period, international humanitarian aid opera- tions, which escalated significantly after 1990 and continued to flourish in the 2000s, have positioned Türkiye as a global humanitarian aid actor. These efforts, undertaken by public agencies, non-gover- nmental organisations, and individuals, are guided by humanitarian priorities. The humanitarian aid actors of Türkiye, who are committed to delive- ring relief to the needy regardless of skin colour, ethnicity, religion, or language, work in a variety of disciplines and intensities across the globe. In this sense, Türkiye is the country that has hosted the greatest number of refugees in the world since 2014 and has given the greatest humanitarian aid relati- ve to its national income since 2016. Türkiye hosted the World Humanitarian Summit in 2016, which is another manifestation of the country's position in the realm of humanitarian diplomacy. Foundation of the Turkish Red Crescent The Turkish Red Crescent Society plays a crucial role in Türkiye's humanitarian aid operations. The Turkish Red Crescent, founded in 1868, continues its humanitarian aid services with the support of its donors and volunteers, in cooperation with public authorities, in an effort to "become the flagship of goodness". This positions the Red Crescent as the holder of Türkiye's humanitarian aid repository from the past to the present. The Turkish Red Crescent was founded on June 11, 1868, under the name "Society for Aiding the Woun- ded and Ailing Ottoman Soldiers" to help wounded and sick soldiers. It then operated under the name "Ottoman Red Crescent Society" in 1877, "Türkiye's Red Crescent Community" in 1923, "Turkish Red Crescent Community" in 1935 and "Turkish Red Crescent Society" in 1947. Ankara is the location of the society's headquarters, which is currently known as the "Turkish Red Crescent Society," "Red Crescent," or "Turkish Red Crescent." Its Organisational Structure, Fundamental Principles-Duties and Field of Activity The Turkish Red Crescent conducts its activities in accordance with a set of legislation and ethical prin- ciples. The Geneva Conventions and the legal docu- HUMANITARIAN AID 168 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ments of the International Red Cross and Red Cres- cent Movement have determined the international legal status of the Turkish Red Crescent Society. Under the Turkish legal system, the Red Crescent is governed by the Turkish Civil Code, the Law on Associations, and the Regulation on Associations. The President of the Republic of Türkiye also serves as its Honorary President. According to the Statute of the Turkish Red Crescent Society, the Red Cres- cent's responsibilities fall into the following catego- ries: armed conflict, social service and humanitari- an aid, disaster and safe life, health, blood supply, youth services, and chemical, biological, radiologi- cal, and nuclear hazards. As specified in its Statute, the Red Crescent was founded "to strengthen social resilience in the face of armed conflicts, natural di- sasters, outbreaks, and other extraordinary crises, to help vulnerable individuals in all conditions, lo- cations, and periods without discrimination, to sa- feguard human life and health, to combat hunger, poverty, and deprivation, to contribute to the estab- lishment of a more habitable environment, and to promote quality education for both the individual and society, as well as to safeguard human dignity by fostering mutual understanding, friendship, res- pect, cooperation, and lasting peace among people." The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Mo- vement's seven fundamental principles, namely humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence, voluntary service, unity and universality, along with the principles of transparency, accountabi- lity, responsibility, justice and equality serve as the framework for the ongoing operations of the Red Crescent, which is a significant actor in the global ecosystem of humanitarian aid. In 2021, the Red Crescent offered services to 38,475,909 people in Türkiye and 8,550,000 people internationally as part of its activities in the menti- oned fields. As of 2021, donations and international funds have been the primary sources of income for the Red Crescent, with more than 13,000 employees and more than 180,000 volunteers participating in national and international aid operations. To main- tain the sustainability of its activities as well as its financial stability and security, the Red Crescent engages in a number of commercial activities under the Kızılay Investment (Red Crescent Investment) framework, which is wholly owned by the organisa- tion and tranfsers all revenues to it. The law of war highlights the Red Crescent's signifi- cant role in the sphere of international humanitari- an aid. In accordance with the pertinent provisions of the Geneva Conventions, the Red Crescent has duties and responsibilities in the areas of medical service for the sick or wounded soldiers and civi- lians who have lost their combatant qualities, aid and communication support for prisoners of war and detainees, and humanitarian aid for displaced 169 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD people. The Red Crescent fulfils these roles in coor- dination with public agencies under the rights gran- ted to it by international law. The emblem of the Red Crescent, which consists of a "red crescent" on a white backdrop facing left in frontal view, is protec- ted under international conventions. In the event of a conflict, attacks on persons, vehicles, equipment, supplies, facilities and other elements displaying the Red Crescent emblem in line with the Geneva Conventions are punishable under international law. The Red Crescent, which has become a significant stakeholder in the eyes of international actors, con- tinues to actively cooperate with United Nations (UN) organisations, national associations that are members of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Mo- vement, as well as international non-governmental organisations owing to its strong organisational structure and operational competence. These part- nerships, which are designed to convey experience, resources, and knowledge to all parties involved, place Türkiye in a unique position within the inter- national humanitarian aid structure. This is reflec- ted in the fact that Istanbul is now one of the key hubs of the global ecosystem of humanitarian aid, thanks to active cooperation between international organisations and Turkish humanitarian aid actors. For instance, global humanitarian aid actors, inclu- ding the OECD and OCHA, have established regi- onal offices in Istanbul, and Istanbul Airport has been designated as one of the world's logistics hubs for humanitarian aid. Turkish Red Crescent has responded to natural and human-made disasters in more than 150 countries and has assisted those in need with basic necessi- ties like food and shelter in the last decade. With its permanent delegations in Senegal, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, Iraq, Gaza, Yemen, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, TRNC, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzego- vina, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Pakistan and Indonesia, it also engages in international hu- manitarian activities. Additionally, it conducts its operations in disaster-affected nations throughout Ramadan and Eid al-Adha. With 68 blood donation centres and mobile blood donation vehicles operating under its 18 regional blood donation centres, the Red Crescent works to meet the nation's blood needs from regular, safe, and voluntary blood donors at more than 300 loca- tions. Being a community-based organisation, the Red Crescent's greatest strength is its volunteers. With more than 180,000 active volunteers, the Red Cres- cent develops volunteering programmes for all seg- ments of society and coordinates these activities through the digital management system "gonulluol. org". With the financial support of international actors, particularly the European Union, and in collabo- ration and coordination with public agencies, the Red Crescent works to protect human dignity and lessen human suffering for those who have been displaced due to forced migration and have sought refuge in Türkiye from all over the world. In this regard, Kızılaykart, the biggest global platform for monetary aid for migrants, has established itself as a global brand for cash-based aid in humanitarian emergencies. Also, community centres help to meet the needs of both locals and migrants. As the primary responsible organisation for food services within the scope of the Türkiye National Disaster Response Plan (TAMP), the Red Crescent stands by the people in need from the first moment of the disaster in various catastrophes such as eart- hquakes, fires, floods, landslides and avalanches. 170 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Within the concept of the community-based disas- ter management paradigm, it continues its disaster risk reduction training and awareness-raising initi- atives working with governmental and non-govern- mental organisations. The Red Crescent is one of the key players in Tur- kish social policy since it provides aid and em- powerment to those in need as part of its social ser- vice activities with the help of its branches. Within the context of the idea of a healthy living and ageing society, it conducts training, awareness-raising, and consciousness-raising activities in the field of pub- lic health. The Red Crescent Academy, which was founded to create training programmes, and generate and dis- seminate information in the activity field of the Red Crescent, is the academic aspect of the organisati- on. The Red Crescent Academy conducts research, offers training, and publishes works in the areas of humanitarian aid, disaster relief and emergency aid, public health and blood services on a national and worldwide scale. The Red Crescent holds events on a number of sig- nificant days and weeks in order to raise awareness about its activities. These include World Red Cres- cent and Red Cross Day on May 8, Red Crescent Foundation Week from June 5 to 11, World Blood Donors Day on June 14, World First Aid Day on Sep- tember 13, Red Crescent Week from October 29 to November 4, and World Volunteers Day on Decem- ber 5. The Red Crescent, which conducts all of its activi- ties with the motto of easing human suffering and protecting human dignity, is a national and global, in other words, a globalocal goodness movement with its donors, volunteers, employees and corpo- rate stakeholders. In this sense, on the one hand, it serves as an auxiliary to the state through the ope- rations it conducts in our nation and supports our nation's efforts in humanitarian diplomacy. On the other hand, it contributes to the global world of go- odness through organisations like the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the "OIC Red Network", which is the cooperation network of Red Cross and Red Crescent associati- ons in the region of the Organisation of Internatio- nal Islamic Cooperation, and the "Turkic World Red Crescent Union", which was founded to enhance cooperation between the Red Crescent associations of the member countries. The Red Crescent, which leaves a lasting impres- sion on hearts by reaching out to people in many parts of the world through its international activi- ties, is the warmest representation of the Türkiye brand, the hand of compassion and mercy. Among the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies in the world in 2021, the Red Crescent reached the most number of individuals in need in most nations. It is the eighth-highest budgetary commitment to hu- manitarian aid among all national Red Cross and Red Crescent groups worldwide. AFAD’s Humanitarian Aid Activities Türkiye continues to offer humanitarian aid to tho- se in need as a result of natural disasters, armed conflicts, and internal strife around the globe, as it did in the past. Continous humanitarian crises in 171 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Türkiye's neighbouring regions have served as the primary driving force behind recent humanitarian relief efforts. These crises, whose effects are beco- ming more widespread every day, have also impro- ved Türkiye's standing within the current humani- tarian aid system. This has also been reflected in humanitarian aid reports, and Türkiye has ranked high among the nations supplying humanitarian aid. In particular, between 2010 and 2022, Türkiye's in- ternational emergency and humanitarian assistan- ce efforts increased. As a matter of fact, the amount of aid, which was 152.5 million USD in 2010, increa- sed 49 times until 2019 and reached 7.6 billion USD. The Global Humanitarian Assistance Reports for 2018, 2019, and 2020 place Türkiye at the top of the list of nations that provide the most humanitarian aid. The Disaster and Emergency Management Presi- dency (AFAD) has provided humanitarian aid to those affected by disasters and emergencies such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, famine, fires and ci- vil unrest. Between 2009 and 2022, AFAD provided humanitarian assistance to a total of 70 countries on five continents, including Afghanistan, Alba- nia, Bangladesh, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Djibouti, Chad, China, De- mocratic Republic of Congo, Ecuador, Ecuadorian Guinea, Indonesia, Ethiopia, Republic of Fiji, Philip- pines, Palestine, Gambia, Guinea, Guatemala, South Sudan, Haiti, Croatia, Honduras, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Cameroon, Kyrgyzstan, TRNC, Colom- bia, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Laos, Liberia, Libya, Lebanon, Madagascar, Malaysia, Egypt, Mongolia, Moldova, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar, Ne- pal, Niger, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, Panama, Russia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Somaliland, Se- negal, Serbia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Chile, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Uganda, Ukraine, Vanu- atu, Vietnam and Yemen. AFAD continues to provide humanitarian relief in every region of the world without discrimination of language, religion, race or gender, and pursues uninterrupted humanitarian aid in regions where acute crises are experienced. Since 2017, AFAD has been continuing its activities in Cox's Bazar province of Bangladesh for Rohing- ya Refugees who were displaced in Myanmar and forced to migrate to Bangladesh. AFAD has so far constructed 5,959 shelters and a field hospital for Rohingya Refugees. The hospital, with a total area of 3.500 m2, is the most equipped hospital in the re- gion with its waiting area, triage, laboratory, x-ray department, pharmacy, polyclinics, inpatient servi- ce, operating rooms and 85 personnel. Since 2011, AFAD has been sending bread flour to needy people through the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) in order to meet the urgent need for food in Palestine due to the long-standing Israeli occupation. Following the emergence of a humanitarian relief aid amid the Russia-Ukraine war, AFAD took action quickly and reached the Romania-Siret Border Gate on the second day of the crisis and initiated its hu- manitarian relief efforts. Later, it continued its relief efforts in Ukraine in Lviv and Romania Siret Border Gate, as well. Under the coordination of AFAD, hu- manitarian aid trucks were dispatched to Ukraine and Moldova to meet the humanitarian aid needs of Ukrainian refugees and displaced persons. In addi- tion, dry food assistance and hot meals were supp- 172 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 173 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 174 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD lied through the mobile kitchen truck stationed in Lviv to the war-affected people. AFAD has continued to provide humanitarian re- lief to the people of Afghanistan since 2010. Among the relief supplies, there are food, hygiene and clo- thing materials. During the pandemic that broke out in 2020, AFAD developed the "COVID-19 Food Assistance Project" and delivered 8,000 food par- cels to the people in the region. Between February and March of 2022, ten humanitarian supply tra- ins were dispatched to Afghanistan to satisfy the country's ongoing humanitarian aid need. Charity trains delivered 4,139 tonnes of humanitarian relief supplies to those in need. In response to the ongoing economic crisis in Le- banon and the humanitarian crisis that was exa- cerbated by the explosion in Beirut, humanitarian aid was provided, including a money transfer for the furnishing of the Saida Turkish Hospital, food parcels, and cash aid to cover humanitarian aid ex- penses. To ease the worsening humanitarian crisis, the "Lebanon Charity Ship" was dispatched to Leba- non with 524 tonnes of food to be donated to 43,700 households. In addition, the second journey of the Lebanon Charity Ship, consisting of about 950 ton- nes of food products prepared with donations from non-governmental organisations under the coordi- nation of AFAD, arrived in Lebanon and was distri- buted to the needy civilian population. After the 6.2-magnitude earthquake that struck near Zagreb, the capital of Croatia, on December 29, 2020, 272 heaters, 480 tents and 200 containers were sent to the region. During the phase of disaster response, 10 personnel from AFAD were assigned to the region for the coordination and installation of the delivered supplies. In this respect, AFAD will continue to operate un- der the benevolent principle derived from the noble history and culture of the Turkish nation, regard- less of language, religion, race, geography or gender. Photos Of Humanitarian Relief Ukraine 175 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Croatia Lebanon Palestine Türkiye's International Relief Efforts According to the Turkish Cooperation and Coor- dination Agency’s (TIKA) data, our country dona- ted a total of 8.12 billion dollars in international aid in 2020. Emergency and humanitarian aid composes 7.27 billion dollars of these donations. In 2019, 87 per cent ($7.5 billion) of our 8.67 billion USD in international relief is humanitarian aid, of which 96 per cent ($7.2 billion) is for Syrians in our country. Our country's international relief in 2020 has been delivered to 112 countries. According to the data of TIKA, the countries to which our country provided the most international relief in 2020 are: 176 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 177 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 1. Syria: $7.078 billion (The main share is for Sy- rians residing in our country) 2. Albania: $59.9 million 3. Iraq: $36.6 million 4. Afghanistan: $36.4 million 5. Palestine: $32.9 million 6. Somalia: $25.9 million 7. Kazakhstan: $21.7 million 8. Kyrgyzstan: $20.9 million 9. Bosnia and Herzegovina: $7.9 million 10. Tunisia: $7.3 million According to the Global Humanitarian Assistance Report published by the London-based "Develop- ment Initiatives" in 2021, our country has remai- ned the "most generous country in the world" by allocating 0.98% of its gross national income for humanitarian aid in 2020. Our country ranks se- cond after the USA in terms of humanitarian aid amount. Relations with the UN in Maintaining Interna- tional Peace and Stability Türkiye is one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) and supports the solution of international problems through multilateral coo- peration. It plays a constructive role on all issues on the UN agenda. In maintaining international peace and stability, Türkiye contributes to peacekeeping operations in cooperation with the UN by contributing military and civilian personnel to the UN peacekeeping missions deployed in various regions of the world. Moreover, developments in the international are- na since the establishment of the United Nations in 1945 necessitated reforms of the Organisation in several areas. Türkiye, believing that the United Nations should continue to be the source of hope for the entire world, supports the steps taken for the better functioning of the UN system. In this regard, our country also supports the three pillars (peace and security, administration, and develop- ment) reform efforts initiated by the UN Secre- tary-General. As a concrete demonstration of the importance our nation attaches to the United Nations, Former Minister for EU Affairs and Chief Negotiator Am- bassador Volkan Bozkır served as the President of the 75th Session of the United Nations General Assembly from September 14, 2020, to September 14, 2021. The Presidency of the General Assembly is the highest elected position in the UN organisa- tion, and Mr Bozkır was the first Turkish citizen to assume this duty in the 75-year history of the UN. Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency's (TİKA) Development Cooperation Activities P eople-centredness, conformity to national priorities and needs, provision of high-qua- lity products and services, impartiality and transparency, participation, reliability, result-o- riented effectiveness, efficiency, appropriateness, and compatibility with a foreign policy are the core principles of Türkiye's development cooperation activities. With this approach, referred to as the Turkish-ty- pe development cooperation model, Türkiye has become a donor nation in the field of international development cooperation since the early 2000s, ex- hibiting strong political leadership and economic stability and achieving significant success. The official development assistance organisation in Türkiye, the Turkish Cooperation and Coordi- nation Agency (TİKA), was founded in 1992, giving Türkiye's development cooperation an institutional structure. In the 1990s, Türkiye placed a high pri- ority on assisting cognate states and communities. The geography of assistance started to expand in the 2000s with economic developments and the adoption of a multifaceted foreign policy. The coo- peration activities that began in the Central Asian Turkic Republics expanded to include states and communities in the Balkans, and when combined with the humanitarian and enterprising Turkish foreign policy initiatives, the geography of activity extended to the Middle East and Africa, East and South Asia, the Pacific, and Latin America. TİKA has carried out more than 30 thousand pro- jects and activities since its establishment. Estab- lishing relationships with the targeted states and communities in economic, commercial, technical, social, cultural, and educational fields through DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION 180 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD projects, programmes, and activities, as well as car- rying out the contribution, assistance, and related processes, have been determined to be the founding purpose of TİKA. With 62 programme coordination offices spread across 60 countries, TİKA presently performs both implementation and coordination tasks in development cooperation and emergency and humanitarian aid. Many public institutions, or- ganisations and non-governmental organisations in Türkiye are also engaged in international aid and development cooperation activities in cooperation and coordination with TİKA. Türkiye's Official Development Assistance In accordance with OECD standards, development assistance covers the budgetary support from one or more public, private, non-governmental, or in- ternational donors to a recipient nation or interna- tional organisations for development or emergency and humanitarian purposes, contributions to prog- rammes, project-based initiatives, expert and tech- nical support, student scholarships, and expenses associated with asylum seekers in the country. Türkiye reports voluntarily, particularly on develop- ment assistance, despite not being a member of the OECD/DAC. In the ranking based on the amount of development assistance, Türkiye has outperformed many developed countries and OECD/DAC mem- bers in recent years. Türkiye outpaced significant donors, including Italy, Switzerland, Denmark, Bel- gium, Spain, and Korea, in terms of the amount of development assistance compared to 30 DAC mem- bers in 2011, thanks to a sharp increase. Source: (TİKA, 2021) Türkiye's Official Development Assistance and Emergency and Humanitarian Aid (million USD) between 2011 and 2020 : Türkiye's ODA : Türkiye’s Emergency and Humanitarian Aid 181 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD After the increase in emergency and humanita- rian aid for people with temporary protection status in Türkiye, particularly Syrians, Türkiye's official development aid, which was $1.27 billion in 2011, increased uninterruptedly for nine years until 2019, reaching $8.67 billion. Türkiye's contri- bution to official development assistance climbed from 21% to 87% throughout this period, reaching $7.54 billion. In 2020, Türkiye's official develop- ment assistance amounted to $8.12 billion. The most significant host country in the world as of the end of 2020 is Türkiye, hosting over 4 million forcibly displaced people (including those with temporary protection status and asylum seekers), 92% of whom are Syrians. Türkiye's ODA/GNI ratio (Ratio of Official Deve- lopment Assistance to Gross National Income) in 2009 was 0.11%, but for official donors, it was 0.31%. Official donors exhibit a reasonably steady assistance profile of 0.30% between 2009 and 2020. In the same period, Türkiye's ODA/GNI ratio increased steadily every year, breaking a record in 2019, reaching 1.15%. In 2020, this ratio was 1.12% for Türkiye and 0.32% for official donors. In this period, Türkiye's pledge to support the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), a significant portion of which are located in Africa, was more than met. Fundamental Considerations and Approac- hes in International Development Cooperati- on Activities Development cooperation projects reflect Türki- ye's humanitarian and enterprising foreign policy in international affairs. It is essential, within the bounds of possibility, to extend a helping hand to everyone who requires the assistance of our country, wherever they may be in the world. While our conception of development cooperati- Source: (OECD, 2021) Official Donors Türkiye Official Donors and Ratio of Türkiye's Official Development Assistance to Gross National Income (ODA/GNI) (%) between 2009 and 2020 182 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD on is nourished by our deeply rooted past, state philosophy, civilisational experience, and cultural values, it does not contradict the requirements of our time and international realpolitik. Development problems on a national, regional, or global scale, to which Türkiye is extremely sensiti- ve, are addressed in light of real local needs. The greatest investment is made in the future by developing physical and human infrastructures in the field of education, which affects all sectors. Access to good education opportunities, particu- larly in developing countries, protects from radi- cal elements and terrorism through participation in economic and social life. Recognising that human life is the most valuable asset, the country's largest capital is safeguarded by developing physical and human infrastructu- res in the field of health.The health of families, women, and children is given special considera- tion. As the foundation of the family and society, the status of women is given special considera- tion. Supporting the disadvantaged members of society (orphans, the elderly, the disabled, etc.) contributes to the balance of economic and social life. Particular attention is paid to access to clean water, and food production projects, which are among the most fundamental human needs, and support is provided for the fight against drought, hunger, and poverty. In response to emergency needs arising from cri- ses such as natural disasters or war, coordinator- ships around the world take immediate action to prevent loss of life, reduce the impact of social tra- uma, and speed up the normalisation process. The development of the capacity to combat terro- rism, as well as the improvement of the administ- rative and economic systems of the countries, are supported, and projects are designed to eliminate the grievances resulting from terrorism. Development cooperation activities enable us to meet our aid commitments, including those to the Least Developed Countries, by contributing to the Paris Declaration and the Sustainable De- velopment Goals (2030 Agenda), to which our country is a signatory. While these projects add- ress the target country's development issues, they also significantly contribute to the development of political/diplomatic and commercial/economic relations between countries and our country's in- ternational effectiveness. Priority is given to integrating the countries' na- tural resources and human capacity into the eco- nomy. Economic cooperation opportunities are evaluated using the win-win principle so that de- veloping countries can break free from the system of exploitation and find new opportunities and ways out. In order to lay the groundwork for economic co- operation, vocational and technical education, employment, production development, and inco- me generation through trade, projects in agricul- ture, livestock, forestry, construction, industry, tourism, transportation, and communication are supported. With the awareness that we are preserving this world for future generations and to make develop- ment sustainable by protecting the air, soil, wa- ter resources, animals, plants, and all living and non-living nature, studies are supported to prote- ct the ecological balance, prevent environmental pollution, use resources consciously and efficient- ly, and prevent excessive consumption and waste. Restoring works that are part of our shared histo- rical and cultural heritage lays the groundwork for a shared future. 33 of the 46 countries on the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) list are located in the African Continent. While there was $2.28 billion in overall 183 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD assistance for LDCs between 2011 and 2020, 65% of this amount, $1.49 billion, went to LDCs on the African Continent. The assistance amount, which stood at $1.4 million in 2005, hit $391.60 million in 2015, setting a record. Source: (TİKA, 2022) Sector Percentage Comprehensive Social Infrastructure and Services (education, health, administrative/civil, water etc.) 34.7 Commodity and General Programme Assistance (general budget support, other commodi- ties etc.) 29.8 Multiple and Convergent Sectors (general environmental protection, other multi-sectoral) 14.7 Comprehensive Production Sectors (agriculture, industry, construction, mining etc.) 5.8 Emergency and Humanitarian Aid (emergency aid, rehabilitation, disaster prevention etc.) 1.0 Economic Infrastructures and Services (transportation, energy, banking etc.) 0.8 Other (administration expense, promotion of development assistance, etc.) 13.0 Total 100 Sectoral Distribution of Türkiye's Official Development Assistance to LDCs in the African Continent in 2020 (%) Türkiye's Official Development Assistance to All LDCs (Least Developed Countries) and the LDCs on the African Continent (2005-2020) (Million USD) Source: (TİKA, 2022) (TİKA, 2021) All LDCs LDCs on the African Continent 184 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Major Examples of Turkish Development Coo- peration Activities Education • Around 1,000 students can receive an education at the Kyrgyz-Turkish Friendship High School, which was established in Osh, Kyrgyzstan. • In Niamey, the capital of Niger, a school for boys and girls with 42 classrooms, a capacity for 1,260 students, and a dormitory building were built and furnished. • The girls' dormitory for the Jerusalem Univer- sity in Palestine was built. • The Azerbaijan Baku Atatürk High School's educational facilities were modernised and fur- nished, allowing the school to accommodate an additional 800 students. • The educational capacity of the School of the Republic of Türkiye in Luque, Paraguay, was increased, and students were provided with bet- ter conditions. • In Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina, also refer- red to as the "City of Viziers," the historic Elchi Ibrahim Pasha Madrasa was renovated and put into use as a school. • With the school built in the town of El Orejon in Colombia's Antioquia region, inaugurated by Colombia's president, we contributed to the country's peace process. Health, Water and Sanitation • The 50-bed field hospital for the needs of the re- gion's people, which arose as a result of the Ye- meni civil war, was established in collaboration with the Ministry of Health, the Red Crescent, and TİKA and provides health care to 1.2 million people annually. • The Türkiye-Palestine Friendship Hospital was built and supplied in Gaza as the country's lar- gest and most equipped hospital. • The Kyrgyzstan-Türkiye Friendship Hospital, built by Türkiye in Bishkek, the capital city of Kyrgyzstan, provides services in various branc- hes with advanced diagnosis and treatment. • The Niger-Türkiye Friendship Hospital has more than 150 personnel, including Turkish professionals, eight polyclinics, two operating rooms, a five-person intensive care unit, 20 pa- tient rooms, five incubators, a delivery room, an imaging centre, a laboratory, and a pharmacy. 185 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • Otorhinolaryngology surgeries were performed on 100 patients in Kabul, the capital of Afgha- nistan, and 250 patients were examined. • The courses run under the "Maternal and Child Health Promotion Programme" (AÇ-SAP) attra- cted nearly 2,000 participants from various ge- ographic locations. • The Somalia-Türkiye Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Training and Research Hospital was construc- ted. It currently treats 25,000 patients and per- forms 550 operations monthly on average. • In Libya, a physiotherapy hospital was constru- cted. The hospital has 38 therapy sections and two therapy pools, in addition to three depart- ments for women, men and urgent orthopaedic care within its 2,400 square metres. • The Sudan-Türkiye Training and Research Hos- pital, established in accordance with the proto- col that Türkiye and Sudan signed, continues to provide services with a 150-bed capacity, 46 intensive care beds, three operating rooms, and two delivery rooms, a fully equipped radiology unit, and a laboratory. • In order to upgrade Uzbekistan's emergency medical infrastructure and improve the quality of healthcare services, 50 ambulances and 20 mobile office vehicles were supplied. • Batumi Infectious Diseases Hospital in Georgia was renovated, and its capacity was increased. This development made a very important cont- ribution to the country's health system in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. • In Comrat, the capital of Gagauzia, in the Re- public of Moldova, Aziz Sancar Diagnosis and Treatment Centre was built within the existing "Regional Hospital" and provides care for about 40,000 patients each year. • A healthcare centre was built in Adjohoun, a town close to Benin's capital, Porto Novo. • In order to address the problem of families' lack of access to clean water in the Kenyan internally displaced people (IDP) camp, water tanks were constructed as part of the "Water First Program- me." • Boreholes were constructed in Syria in 2020 to supply the water demands of 1,3 million peop- le in regions freed of terrorism (Ras al-Ayn, Tal Abyad) in the scope of Operation Peace Spring. • For nearly 1,200 water and wastewater specia- lists from over 30 countries, training and capa- city-building programmes on a variety of topics were conducted. International Fight against COVID-19 • In order to contribute to the international fight against the pandemic, TİKA travelled around 186 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD the world and completed various projects. • Health trainings were organised by donating medical equipment and consumables based on the country's needs. • In this context, 221 projects and activities were implemented in 75 countries in need. • The projects benefited nearly 5 million people regardless of race, language, religion, or sect. • Türkiye's hospitals also played an active role in the fight against the pandemic. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries • The Agricultural School building was construc- ted in Mogadishu, Somalia's capital, to provide qualified agricultural training. Motorised agri- cultural vehicles and practical training equip- ment were donated. A modern chicken bree- ding farm was established in Mogadishu as part of the Egg Poultry Development Project. • The Raspberry Planting and Rural Employment Project was implemented in Bosnia and Herze- govina with the goal of increasing agricultural workforce qualifications, developing agricultu- ral projects throughout the country, and redu- cing unemployment. • The "Sudan Turkish Gene Resources and Arti- ficial Insemination Centre" was established to promote cattle breeding, for which Sudan has a significant capacity. • Families were given the necessary equipment and training to start their own businesses in or- der to expand beekeeping in Azerbaijan. • In Georgia, Hydroponic Strawberry Production and the Establishment of Modern Gothic Soil Production Greenhouses were realised. • The "Enhancing Capacity in Cotton Varieties Development" project was implemented in or- der to boost Bangladesh's domestic cotton pro- duction capacity, lessen its reliance on imports for raw material supplies, and utilise the unde- rutilised, low-yielding agricultural areas. • Units for fish processing, packaging, and stora- ge were supplied to the facility in Colombia, bu- ilt for fish farming and processing. • The plan for the road network within the TR- NC's five regional forest chiefdoms was provi- ded. • In order to assist in the production of Arabica coffee in Guinea, fertiliser, pesticides, irrigation systems, and equipment were supplied. • Farmers raising chickens were provided solar incubators, chicks, feed, drinkers, and various vaccines in collaboration with the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries of South Sudan and non-governmental organisations. Within the scope of the project, beekeepers were pro- vided with 300 hives, beekeeping clothing, and other equipment. • As part of development projects in Somalia and Niger, approximately one hundred orphan hou- seholds received small cattle. • A canal for irrigation was constructed in the Ampara region of Sri Lanka. • Seeds were provided to 50 farmer families resi- ding in villages with a greenhouse and irrigation infrastructure in order to encourage greenhouse farming activities and improve the living stan- dards of the people in Montenegro. • Fishing canoes were supplied to 50 families who depended on fishing in Trincomalee, a city in north-eastern Sri Lanka and one of the areas most impacted by the internal turmoil that ra- ged there between 1983 and 2009. • Georgia's Tbilisi National Botanical Garden, the world's herbal heritage, which spans 128 thou- sand hectares, was provided with the necessary medicines and technology. • Since the need for saplings could not be suffi- ciently met by the afforestation and agricultural activities conducted in the Jenin region of Pales- 187 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD tine, a greenhouse-based seedling production facility was established on a total area of 1,500 square meters. • To boost their production capacity, 850 cof- fee-producing Mayan farmers in the Alta Ve- rapaz region of northern Guatemala, whose primary source of income is coffee, received equipment assistance. Energy • Support was granted for building a solar char- ging station for electric vehicles called "Plas- ma-2019", carried out by the Moldovan Wind Energy Association, which has been manufac- turing micro solar panel projects for 14 years. • In accordance with the Professional Cooperati- on Protocol signed in Sudan, Sudanese emplo- yees in the power distribution industry received training. • A training programme on renewable energy was held for the Congress of Burkina Faso Trade Union's (CBS) delegation of engineers. • A laboratory for solar energy, wind energy, and PLC (programmable logic controller) was es- tablished at the Cherchell Vocational Training Centre in the Algerian province of Tipaza. Economic Infrastructure and Services • A facility for the production of milk and dairy products was established in the province of Go- vi-Altai in order to increase the standard of li- ving of local producers in Mongolia, create emp- loyment opportunities, and contribute to the production of healthy milk and dairy products. • An olive oil factory was established and equip- ped in Gaza, Palestine, to support the local agri- culture and food industries. • A chocolate production and sales workshop was developed in Lebanon to provide women with a sustainable source of income and a profession. • In Vitez, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a factory for producing fruit juice was constructed to sup- port women who were victims of war. • The "Hydroponic Fodder Greenhouse Facility" project was implemented to prevent the loss of animals raised in the settlements of Ozondati and Otjongundu in the Erongo Region, near the eastern border of the Namib Desert in Namibia, during drought seasons. • Support was provided to the Herat Ceramics Workshop, which is the only place for produ- cing ceramics for the restoration of historical artefacts and restoring historical ceramics in Af- ghanistan, which had ceased operations due to financial constraints. Administrative and Civil Infrastructure • The Mali National Assembly's general assembly hall and foyer area were renovated. • Ambulances, garbage trucks, and street swee- pers were supplied to local governments in Tu- nisia to meet their requirements. • The State Archive of the Presidency of Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina was provided with seven scanning devices in order to digitise docu- ments from the Ottoman Period. With the assis- tance provided, documents from the Ottoman Period preserved in Bosnia and Herzegovina's archives can be transferred to digital media and made more accessible to researchers. • Two of the stores on the campus of the Ankara Ali-Shir Nava'i Mosque in the city of Sheberg- han of Jowzjan Province, northern Afghanistan, were transformed and equipped as libraries. It is aimed to spread the Turkish culture and lan- guage. 188 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • As part of the Diplomacy Training Programme (DTP), training on Turkish foreign policy, pro- tocols, basic diplomacy, transboundary waters, public diplomacy, multilateral diplomacy and negotiations were provided. • Security personnel in Afghanistan, Sudan, Azerbaijan, Tunisia, Palestine, Kazakhstan, Uz- bekistan and Kenya were trained by the General Directorate of Security. • METEP (Media Techniques Training) and MEP (Reporting Training Programme) programmes were carried out. In addition, media represen- tatives participated in the "New Media Journa- lism Basic Level Training Programme," which was implemented face-to-face in three different countries. • Training support was provided to the Cuban Institute of Radio and Television (ICRT) in the field of HD broadcasts. • The two streets leading to the coastline, toget- her with the coastline in the closed part of the Maraş (Varosha) region in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, were opened to the public on 8 October 2020 by the TRNC authorities. With the region's opening to the public, lands- caping and road construction were conducted throughout the region. • The delegation from the water and sewerage ad- ministrations of Malawi, Somalia, Uganda, and Zambia received training. • Since Türkiye was recognised as a Regional Tra- ining Centre (RTC) of the World Meteorological Organisation (DMT/WMO) in 2001, it has orga- nised more than 100 certified training courses and trained more than 1000 foreign partici- pants. • A five-year Strategic Development Programme was developed to implement the Turkish mo- del in Afghanistan's land registry and cadastre fields. • In Iraq's Tuz Khurmatu region, asphalt paving work was conducted in Alwa and Aksu. Emergency and Humanitarian Aid • As a reflection of its enterprising and humani- tarian foreign policy and understanding of hu- man-centred development assistance, Türkiye extends a helping hand to those in need around the globe. • Among the recipients of Türkiye's emergency and humanitarian aid are Syrian refugees in our country, people affected by the drought in So- malia, people affected by earthquakes in Alba- nia, Mexico, and Haiti, people displaced by flo- ods in Pakistan and Cambodia, innocent people caught between conflicts in Iraq, Yemen, and Gaza. It spans a vast geographical area, from the oppressed in the Middle East to those in Arakan. Culture • In the city of Turkestan, Kazakhstan, the tomb of the eminent mystic Khoja Ahmed Yasawi was renovated. • Ottoman artefacts on the island of Suakin in Su- dan, which is an important place in the history of both Sudan and Türkiye, were renovated. • The Ram Fortress, one of the seven castles in Serbia to dominate the Danube and which was rebuilt by Bayezid II, was renovated. • The tomb of the eminent Islamic scholar Abdul Qadir Jilani, located in the city centre of Bagh- dad, Iraq, was renovated, contributing to the preservation of Baghdad's cultural legacy. 189 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • The Et'hem Bey Mosque in Albania, a first-cate- gory cultural monument, was renovated. • Ketchaoua Mosque, whose history stretches back to the 14th century, was restored as one of the symbols of 500 years of friendship between Türkiye and Algeria and the symbol of Algeria's independence. • In Ethiopia, the tomb of Najashi, King of Aby- ssinia, and his 15 Companions, who tolerantly welcomed the first Islamic migrants to his land, was renovated. • Restorations of Ohri Ali Pasha Mosque (North Macedonia), El Bab Ulu Mosque (Syria), North Nicosia Selimiye Mosque and Magusa Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque (Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus) were completed. • The renovation and landscaping of the Prizren Emin Pasha Mosque, built by Emin Pasha in 1832 in Prizren, Kosovo, and one of the most magnificent mosques in Prizren, thanks to its interior decorations and embellishments, were completed. • A symbol of Turkish-Hungarian friendship sin- ce the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the "Spiritual Guardian of Buda," the Tomb of Gül Baba was restored. 190 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • Ali Rıza Efendi Memorial House Museum Complex in Kodžadžik Village of the Centar Župa Municipality of Macedonia, named after the father of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the foun- der of the Turkish Republic, was designed and constructed in accordance with the original. • With the Tonyukuk excavations conducted in Mongolia as part of the "Turkish Monuments Project," discoveries that shed light on Tur- kish-Mongolian history were made, and inf- rastructure efforts were carried out to preser- ve and promote the site. Multiple and Overlapping Sectors • Sivas Kangal dogs and Anatolian shepherd dogs were donated to the Cheetah Conser- vation Fund in Namibia to protect livestock from the world's fastest land animal, the che- etah, and to maintain ecological equilibrium. In addition, a "Cheese and Yogurt Production Facility" was built and installed as part of the "Programme for the Protection of Natural Life, Sustainable Rural Economic Development, and Safe Ways to Support Ecotourism" in or- der to analyse the goat milk supplied by the locals. • In order to support the economic and social progress of women in Uzbekistan and their involvement in the labour force, the Associa- tion of Women Entrepreneurs in Bukhara was established, and furnishing assistance was provided. • By enhancing their habitats, the endangered giraffe population in Niger was protected, and the continuity of their lineage was ensured. • A cricket sports training centre was establis- hed at Fatima Jinnah Government Girls Scho- ol in Karachi, Pakistan, and the necessary sports equipment was supplied. • In cooperation with the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TİKA), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and the Middle East Technical University (METU) Disaster Centre, and within the fra- mework of the triangle cooperation, approxi- mately 40 experts participated in the training in the field of "Disaster Risk Management and Raising Disaster-resilient Societies" for Asian countries struggling with natural disasters, which have been held annually since 2017. • The Club Deportivo Palestino, founded in 1920 by the Palestinian community living in Chile, received sports equipment support. In addition, as part of the cooperation between the two countries, the nursing facility where Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese reside re- ceived assistance. • The Ecuador-Türkiye Friendship Park was built in the capital of Ecuador. 191 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • Did you know that Türkiye, with over 4 million refugees, is by far the nation hosting the most refugees, according to data from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)? • Did you know that Türkiye holds the title of "the most generous country" since it provides the most emergency and humanitarian aid in proportion to its national income? • Did you know that the Ottoman sultans had the reputation of "cihan-pe- nah", that is, the sanctuary and protector of the world, and that the inter- national aid and humanitarian diplomacy activities of the Ottomans for centuries were compiled and published in a book of the same name by the Directorate of State Archives? • Did you know that the first international aid in the Republican era was the exchange of experience in the field of health with Afghanistan in 1926 and that Dr Kamil Rıfkı Urga was sent to Afghanistan by Mustafa Kemal Ata- türk, and a medical school was established with his recommendation? • Did you know that the Bridge on the Drina, built by Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha in Visegrad, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and restored by TİKA after war damage, won Ivo Andrić the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1961 for his novel of the same name? • Did you know that the restoration of Ketchaoua Mosque, where Algerians performed their first Friday prayers following Algeria's independence in 1962, was carried out by TİKA? • Did you know that TİKA restored the tomb of Najashi, King of Abyssinia, who tolerantly welcomed the 15 Companions of the Prophet Mohammad as the first Muslim migrants to his country? • Did you know that the archaeological excavations in and around the Bilge Tonyukuk Inscriptions in Mongolia, which are of great importance in terms of Turkish language and history, as well as its promotion efforts, are carried out by TİKA? DID YOU KNOW? A pproximately 5.8 million of our 7 million citizens living abroad are composed of our citizens who have settled in Western Euro- pean countries and continued to live there; they are now in their fifth generation. It is possible to talk about the presence of the Turkish diaspora, which consists of around 10 million people if we include the 3 million citizens who formerly resi- ded abroad but have since returned permanently to Türkiye. Meeting the requirements of our citizens living abroad and resolving their problems is a top prio- rity of our foreign policy and one of the most cru- cial aspects of our relations with the countries in which they reside. Our primary objective is for Turks living abroad to be happy and prosperous, to actively involve them in the political, economic, social, and cultural life of the countries in which they reside, to respect the rule of law, and to maintain their connections to their native language and culture. On the other hand, these are processes that entail reciprocal duties and countries receiving migration are also obligated to develop policies that promote and embrace adaption. Racism, anti-immigrant sentiments, and Islamop- hobia have recently increased globally, particular- ly in Europe. Since they comprise a large portion of the Muslim community in these countries, the negative developments in this regard have a dire- ct impact on the Turkish society living mostly in European countries. Our nation emphasises the significance of mainta- ining trust between Turkish citizen migrants and the society in which they reside, and actively par- ticipates in all bilateral and international coopera- tion mechanisms to combat racist, discriminatory, and anti-Islamic tendencies that undermine social peace. In the 1960s, Türkiye inked labour force ag- reements with several countries. With these agre- OUR CITIZENS LIVING ABROAD AND RELATED COMMUNITIES 194 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ements signed with Germany in 1961, Austria, Bel- gium, and the Netherlands in 1964, France in 1965, and Australia in 1967, our workers who began mig- rating to these countries played a significant role in the development of the recipient countries. Our Diaspora's Changing Needs and Priorities Since then, the sociological, political, and economic developments in Europe have altered our diaspora's perspective, needs, and priorities. To sum up; • In the 1960s, our workers did not consider re- siding permanently in the countries they went to. The idea of returning homeland predomina- ted. The prominent areas of need were housing, worship, and association. • In the 1970s, our workers embraced the idea of permanent settlement and established families in the countries they went to. Our workers, who also obtained citizenship in their host count- ries, gradually became involved in the social adaptation process. • In the 1980s and 1990s, the institutionalisation of our diaspora in Europe made great progress, and civil society activities began to pick up spe- ed. However, racist attacks against our people also took place. • In numerous ways, brand-new needs emerged as the new millennium approached. Issues such as education and employment of our di- aspora in Europe, the fight against institutio- nal racism and discrimination, and citizenship rights came to the forefront, and Türkiye's di- aspora policy began to take shape based on the resolution of these issues. Türkiye's Diaspora Policy Taking all of these needs into account, Türkiye's di- aspora policy is based on achieving three primary goals: • Protecting the attachment of our citizens living abroad to their homeland, • Supporting the preservation of the native lan- guage and culture of our citizens abroad in their countries of residence, • Strengthening the social status of our citizens living abroad in their countries of residence. In this regard, the Presidency for Turks Abroad and Related Communities (YTB) conducts its work for our community of 7 million people, which consists of Turkish citizens who migrate abroad for various reasons and continue to reside in the places where they migrate, or Blue Card holders who left Turkish citizenship with permission, and provides solutions to their problems. YTB carries out projects for the benefit of our citi- zens living abroad, as well as initiatives to enhance public services for them in collaboration with rele- vant institutions. In addition, the activities condu- cted aim to preserve the family structure and so- ciocultural values of our diaspora and pass them on to future generations; civil society activities in these areas are supported. 195 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Turkish Language and Education Education stands out as a determining factor for the effective participation of our citizens abroad in social, cultural, and economic life. It is crucial for our children and youth to develop proficiency in both their native language, one of the most essen- tial elements of identity, and foreign language as well as to have access to quality educational op- portunities, both in terms of the country they resi- de in and their ties to their native country. The education of our youth contributes to an incre- ase in the employment rates of our citizens living abroad, as well as to the elevation of their social status. While previous generations went abroad as workers, education enables our new generation citizens to hold jobs as employers, managers, and other positions. To this end, YTB conducts and supports initiatives to promote our children and young people’s pursu- it of higher education abroad, offer guidance servi- ces to their families, and improve their professio- nal competencies. Cultural Mobility Our young people living abroad have a close rela- tionship with the culture of the country in which they reside. The culture, identity and behaviour patterns of our young people can naturally chan- ge and transform quite rapidly. In light of this, it is essential that our youth abroad recognise, absorb, and convey our national, spiritual, historical, and cultural values to future generations because the severing of cultural and historical ties can bring with it a host of difficulties. For these reasons, es- pecially the younger generations are experiencing some personal and social issues. 196 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD YTB engages in efforts in a variety of areas to enab- le our youth build self-confidence, sense of histo- rical attachment, peace with the society in which they live, and ability to be successful, active, and responsible individuals. Our youth will find the motivation to compete with their peers in every field and will be the future and pride of Türkiye abroad if they have a deep unders- tanding of their culture and history and transform this understanding into a heartfelt connection. Related Communities In addition to Turkish citizens living abroad, Tür- kiye maintains close ties with kindred and related communities (Brotherly Communities) residing in various parts of the world as a result of its his- torical, political, geographical, and cultural chara- cteristics. Countries and societies, some of which have shared a common fate with our nation in the past, are considered within this context, and the commonalities and similarities between them and us are viewed as helpful elements in establishing mutually beneficial collaboration in modern areas. YTB conducts numerous projects for countries, re- gions, and peoples with deep ties to our country. These projects, which span the Balkans to Eastern Europe, Asia to the Middle East and Africa, cover a wide range of topics, including culture, art, educa- tion, society, human capital, and public diplomacy. Within this scope, four core programmes are imp- lemented for the work targeted at conserving our common culture, protecting our historical legacy, and contributing to initiatives on education with related countries and communities. Education Assistance Programme It aims to offer courses in preparation for univer- sity entrance exams for university-age youth from related communities, as well as to boost these young people's positions in their home nations by contributing to their human capital. The program- me includes historical and cultural activities for children and young people, as well as curricular and material support for the creation of pre-school education opportunities. Cultural Mobility and Cooperation Programme The historical and cultural ties between the related communities and our country are aimed to be pre- served, rebuilt, and passed down to future gene- rations. Other cultural and artistic events are also included in the programme, in addition to cultural trips made for the purpose of becoming acquain- ted with our country's rich cultural legacy, particu- larly by young people from related communities. 197 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD It aims to enhance communication and cooperati- on mechanisms with alumni who have completed their higher education in our country through scho- larship or on their own. By virtue of this, Türkiye alumni are urged to contribute to the relationships between their countries and Türkiye in all areas. Alumni of Türkiye Programme TOURISM - TÜRKİYE: A COUNTRY OF TOURISM - - - TOURISM TYPES HISTORICAL PLACES, TOURISM AND CULTURE ROTES IN TÜRKİYE TÜRKİYE ON UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE LIST W hile the number of foreign visitors to Türkiye in 2002 was 13.2 million and tourism revenue was 12.4 billion US dol- lars, the total number of visitors to Türkiye in 2019 increased to 51.7 million, and tourism revenue in- creased to 34.5 billion US dollars. In 2020, tourism movements decreased globally by an average of 70% due to the pandemic; however, Türkiye re- ceived a total of 15.9 million visitors and generated 12 billion US dollars in tourism revenue. In 2021, Türkiye experienced a rapid V-shaped recovery, attracted 30 million tourists and generated 24.5 billion US dollars in tourism revenue. Recently, efforts have been exerted in line with the goal of using the tourism sector as a powerful tool in the local and regional development of Tür- kiye. In this context, tourism is not limited to mass tourism and coastal tourism; it is also supported by thermal, winter, plateau, cultural, congress, religious, gastronomy tourism, and ecotourism. Therefore, the objective is to develop tourism in inner regions and ensure that the tourism season spreads throughout the year. During this period, a further objective is to develop tourism in a sustainable manner, and numerous efforts are exerted to determine the framework that will facilitate this development. In particular, to support the sustainability approach, the Min- istry of Culture and Tourism carries out effective operations on the documentation and planning for tourism facilities, travel agencies, and tour- ism destinations to maintain their activities in an eco-friendly manner to combat the risks posed by climate change in tourism regions, and to mitigate the negative impacts of the development of tour- ism on climate change. Türkiye is one of the leading countries in the world in the tourism sector. With infrastructure invest- ments, historical, cultural, and geographical val- ues, and open policies, Türkiye has taken centre stage as a global tourism destination from the early 2000s to the present day. As a result, the number of tourists visiting Türkiye and the revenue gener- ated from tourism has tended to increase annually. In the 2010s, the number of tourists visiting Tür- kiye exceeded 35 million, and tourism revenue ex- ceeded 25 billion US dollars; by 2019, these num- bers reached a new high of 51.9 million tourists and 34.5 billion US dollars, respectively. TÜRKİYE: A COUNTRY OF TOURISM 202 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD As a turning point in 2019, the Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency (TGA) was established. The Agency's mission is to make Tür- kiye a brand and attraction centre in domestic and international tourism markets, to discover, develop, and promote tangible and intangible natural, cul- tural, biological, and human heritage, to increase the tourism capacity of Türkiye and the proportion of tourism investments in the country's economy, and to improve service quality through short, me- dium, and long-term communication/marketing efforts.With the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, both domestic and international travel restrictions were implemented, and the tourism industry was signifi- cantly impacted by this development. The number of tourists coming to Türkiye decreased to 15.8 mil- lion in 2020, and the tourism revenue to 12 billion US dollars. In 2021, thanks to the effective promotion activities of TGA, the decline experienced in the tourism sec- tor was compensated much more quickly than in other countries; 29 million tourists visited Türkiye, generating 24.5 billion US dollars in revenue. Number of tourists and tourism revenues between 2002-2019 Year Number of Visitors Revenue 2002 15,2 million $ 12,4 billion 2003 16,3 million $ 13,9 billion 2004 20,3 million $ 17,1 billion 2005 24,1 million $ 20,3 billion 2006 23,1 million $ 18,6 billion 2007 27,2 million $ 20,9 billion 2008 31,0 million $ 25,4 billion 2009 32,0 million $ 25,1 billion 2010 33,0 million $ 24,9 billion 2011 36,2 million $ 28,1 billion 2012 36,5 million $ 29,0 billion 2013 39,2 million $ 32,3 billion 2014 41,4 million $ 34,3 billion 2015 41,6 million $ 31,5 billion 2016 31,4 million $ 22,1 billion 2017 38,6 million $ 26,3 billion 2018 45,6 million $ 29,5 billion 2019 51,9 million $ 34,5 billion 203 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Tourism data for 2019-2022 Year Number of Visitors Tourism revenue (000 $) Average expenditure per person Average number of overnight stays 2019 51,860,042 $34,520,332 $666 9.9 2020 15,826,266 $12,059,320 $762 12.4 2021 29,357,463 $24,482,332 $834 12.6 2022-1stQ 6,451,657 $5,454,488 $845 12.5 Looking at the 2019 - 2022 period, the average ex- penditure per capita increased from USD 666 in 2019 to USD 845 in the first quarter of 2022. As a result, the average number of overnight stays inc- reased steadily from 9.9 in 2019 to 12.6 in 2021. The average number of overnight stays, 12.5 in the first quarter of 2022, is expected to increase further in the coming periods. The Tourism Strategy of Türkiye set in place by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and imple- mented by TGA aims for 35 billion dollars in tou- rism revenue by the end of 2022, and 50 billion dollars in tourism revenue by the end of 2023. All digital media are utilised effectively in the context of this promotional strategy. All tourism destinations and products are promoted on social media, including Instagram, Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter, and on the web through the Go Tür- kiye platform. Go Türkiye's web platform was visited by 76.3 mil- lion individual users in 2021 and by 60 million in- dividual users in 2022 as of May. The number of followers on social media accounts is shown in the table: Social Media Platforms Number of Followers Facebook 5.5 million Instagram 1.5 million Twitter 744 K Youtube 82 K 204 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T here are numerous sites of ancient settle- ments throughout Türkiye. With its 22,107 registered archaeological sites, Türkiye is home to a very rich heritage in terms of history and archaeology. Türkiye's tangible and intangible cultural heritage is unique in the world. One of the biggest reasons for this is that Anatolia has em- braced many civilisations and states in these lands with its geographical features and substantiality of natural resources and that all these civilisations have merged with each other and come to the pres- ent day. This wonderful geographical location and climate enabled Türkiye to possess nine ecological areas that must be protected because of their ex- traordinary natural wealth. Throughout the year, Türkiye offers its visitors a variety of activities, trips, and entertainment options that cater to their various interests. The Cultural Routes of the Council of Europe were established in 1987 to demonstrate how the heri- tage of various European nations can contribute to a shared cultural heritage through a journey through time and space. This historical wealth has also had an impact on cultural routes in the international context. Tür- kiye, which has a rich and well-established culture and natural, historical heritage, is also a member of the Cultural Routes of the Council of Europe. With its location between the West and the East and its historical and cultural ties to neighbouring nations, Türkiye provides its visitors with unique opportunities, such as creating and experiencing cultural routes that are both interesting and en- lightening. European Route of Historic Thermal Towns Thermalism can be defined as the therapeutic use of hot springs; it has been a common practice in Europe from ancient times to the present day. Europe is home to many spa towns with different styles of architecture and an array of spa tradi- tions. This spa culture can truly be considered a unique European heritage. There are two locations in Türkiye that are part of the European Route of Historic Thermal Towns. Afyonkarahisar Afyonkarahisar is the capital of thermal tourism in Türkiye and is an important centre of culture, nature, and gastronomy. Afyonkarahisar has a his- tory stretching back more than 5,000 years. It has been home to many empires, such as those of the Hittites, Phrygians, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks, HISTORICAL PLACES, TOURISM AND CULTURE ROUTES IN TÜRKİYE 206 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Akdamar Church www.akdamarkilisesi.gov.tr 207 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 208 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and Ottomans. The thermal tradition first took form here in ancient times and was continued by all societies that lived in the historic city. Bursa Bursa is a modern, popular thermal tourist des- tination which features many Turkish baths and hot springs. Bursa's crystal-clear waters are rich in magnesium and are known as "Silver Waters." Thermal water is well-known for treating rheu- matic diseases, neuralgia, stress disorders, sports injuries, and aiding in rehabilitation. The Routes of the Olive Tree The history of the olive tree dates back millions of years. It is considered a mythical and sacred tree. The relationship between the olive tree and hu- man civilisation has produced an immensely rich, living cultural heritage embedded in the everyday habits of the Mediterranean people. Türkiye has developed to become one of the top 5 producers of olives and olive oil in the world. This can be attributed in part to its Mediterranean cli- mate and to the fact that Central Anatolia is ru- moured to be the birthplace of the humble olive tree. With deep historical, cultural, and manufac- turing roots, it makes sense that Turkish cuisine is often built around olives. In Türkiye, olives are produced in the Aegean, Mar- mara, Mediterranean, and Southeastern regions. Seventy-five per cent of olive trees are located on Türkiye's Aegean coast. Olive production areas in Türkiye range from the Black Sea to the Aegean, from Anatolia to the Mediterranean. There are about 700 varieties of olives worldwide, and Tür- kiye grows between 50-80 different varieties. European Routes of Jewish Heritage The European Route of Jewish Heritage (ERJH) is a platform that promotes developing tourism, cul- tural initiatives, and educational programs related to sites associated with European Jewish heri- tage. The route acts as a channel for intercultural dialogue, promotes a better knowledge and under- standing of religious and daily artefacts of Jewish life, and fosters the recognition of the important role played by the Jewish people in European his- tory. In Türkiye, İzmir presents an unusual cluster of synagogues built in Sephardic architectural styles typical of the 16th century. Evidence of Jewish life in İzmir dates back to Hellenistic and Roman times. Archaeological findings such as the Sardis and Ephesus Synagogues point to a thriving Jew- ish community in the coastal city known at the time as Smyrna. The synagogues in İzmir were built by decedents of Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal and formed a historical architectural complex consisting of nine adjacent synagogues that are unique in the world. 209 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD European Route of Industrial Heritage  The European Route of Industrial Heritage (ERIH) is a network of important and interesting indus- trial heritage sites. The route spans from disused production plants to industrial landscape parks and interactive technology museums across Eu- rope. These sites, all together, tell the story of Eu- ropean industrialization and its lasting cultural, social, and economic legacies. In Türkiye, there is one European Route of In- dustrial Heritage "Anchor Point," namely the san- tralistanbul Museum of Energy in İstanbul, and eight sites on the route. Anchor Points are defined by the Council of Europe as “member sites of the ERIH association with special historical impor- tance in terms of industrial heritage which also of- fer a high-quality visitor experience.” Iron Curtain Trail Following the end of World War II, for almost half a century, there was a physical border that divided Eastern and Western Europe. EuroVelo is a project that provides the opportunity to travel by bicycle in Europe with its 16 different long road routes and extensive network of bicycle paths throughout Eu- rope. The Iron Curtain Trail, the European Cycle Route Network’s EuroVelo 13, extends to the Black Sea. The Iron Curtain Trail, also known as EuroVe- lo, is a project begun in 1995 under the supervision of the European Cyclists' Federation. Those who follow this nearly 10,000-kilometer-long route em- bark on a journey through history. This route also provides a welcome reminder of the peace and rec- onciliation that have followed the fall of the Iron Curtain. A small but important section of EuroVelo 13 – Iron Curtain Trail passes through Türkiye. Its nearly 240-kilometre section begins at the bor- der between the Bulgarian village of Rezovo and the Turkish beach of Beğendik in the north of the country. The route enters Türkiye from the Dervent Hills and leads cyclists to an area with a different cul- tural landscape than the rest of EuroVelo 13. After crossing areas of mixed woodland and farmland, EuroVelo 13 reaches the city of Edirne, which served as the third capital of the Ottoman Empire and is famous for its beautiful Selimiye Mosque. Then, EuroVelo 13 continues through rural land- scapes and the city of Kırklareli before crossing back into Bulgaria again. European Route of Ceramics The European Route of Ceramics is one of the cul- tural routes designed to demonstrate the develop- ment of ceramic art and how the cultural heritages of European countries can contribute to a com- mon cultural heritage. By highlighting this ancient tradition, the route creates opportunities for sus- tainable tourism, offering travellers the chance to familiarize themselves with the tangible aspects of this heritage (unique artistic productions and collections, workshops, and museums) and the in- tangible aspects (local know-how and crafts nec- essary for ceramic production). İznik The ceramic tiles produced in İznik (historically known as Nicaea) during the 15th and 16th centuries represent the cultural and artistic zenith of the Ot- toman Empire. These tiles still grace the walls of many mosques and palaces today. Examples of İznik tiles form treasured parts of collections in museums in Türkiye and around the world. Aeneas Culture Route The Aeneas Cultural Route is the first and only cultural route to be registered with the Council of 210 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Europe, beginning in Türkiye. Following the nar- rative of the legendary Aeneas, the Aeneas Route is an archaeological route extending across five European and Mediterranean countries, starting from Türkiye’s northwest Aegean coast and con- cluding in Latium, Italy.  The story of Aeneas is about Aeneas, who escaped from the burning city of Troy with his father and son, crossing Greece, Albania, and Tunisia on ships he built with timbers sourced from Mount Ida (Kaz Dağları) in the Ancient City of Antandros in Edremit, and establishing Rome, the most sig- nificant changes in history. The Aeneas Route begins at the archaeological sites of Troy and Antandros in Türkiye and ends in Rome (Italy), combining rural landscapes with natural and archaeological sites, some of which are included in the UNESCO World Heritage list. The Aeneas Cultural Route begins with the ancient city of Troy, which is believed to have survived the Trojan War described in Homer’s Iliad, and illumi- nates tens of thousands of years of Western Anato- lian history. Çanakkale, where the ancient city of Troy is located, offers unique experiences, includ- ing diving, cycling, and hiking routes, in addition to ecological, cultural, and gastronomic values. The second stop on the Aeneas Cultural Route is the Ancient City of Antandros, where a mytho- logical beauty contest ignited the Trojan War and where Aeneas built his ships. Balıkesir, where An- cient City is located, is also an important destina- tion with its natural and cultural assets as well as gastronomic values. Ainos, which was established at the confluence of the Meriç (Maritsa) River with the Saros Gulf and has witnessed uninterrupted settlement since ancient times, is located in Ed- irne today. Edirne, once the capital of the Ottoman Empire, is a significant location that provides its 211 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD visitors with the unique flavours of palace cuisine, cultural treasures that will take you on a historical journey from the past to the present, and many ac- tivities such as diving, paragliding, and trekking. Passing through the provinces of Çanakkale, Balıkesir and Edirne, the Aeneas Culture Route starts in Türkiye and connects Albania, Greece, Tunisia, and Italy. European Route of Megalithic Culture The European Route of Megalithic Culture is one of the Council of Europe cultural roads, where pre- historic stonework complexes -monuments, burial places, sanctuaries- built by ancient communities are promoted to be rediscovered on a route that unifies unique landscapes with unique places, moving beyond and subverting country demarca- tions by integrating them with extraordinary foot- prints of the prehistoric past. Göbeklitepe, Türkiye's famous historical centre, is a new participant in this cultural road network. Dis- covered in the 1990s and since when excavations have been attended incessantly, it has been one of the most important and speculated archaeologi- cal sites in the world, as Göbeklitepe is a Neolithic site that pre-dates pottery, metallurgy, writing, the wheel, and agriculture and both illuminates and creates fascination on our understanding of mega- lithic cultures. Göbeklitepe raises questions regarding the exist- ing theories and literature on settled life since there are no settlements in or near the area located 20 km northeast of Şanlıurfa city centre… Göbeklite- pe is a temple, a sacred architecture with various rooms where colossal anthropomorphic statues, T-shaped pillars, reliefs, totems and many other stone carvings built by hunter-gatherers some 12,000 years ago once stood. In light of the recent surveys, it is inferred that similar sites occupied the region from the same period, enriching the already inestimable value of this peerless world’s cultural heritage. In light of recent research, it is understood that the presence of similar sites from the same period in the region further enriches the already priceless value of this unique cultural heritage. 212 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T he "Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage" was adopted on November 16, 1972, to intro- duce to the world the cultural and natural assets with universal values, which are accepted as the common heritage of all humanity, to create aware- ness in the society to protect this universal heri- tage and to ensure the necessary cooperation for the survival of cultural and natural values that are degraded and destroyed for various reasons. Our country became a party to this convention in 1983. Cultural and natural assets of international impor- tance and therefore worthy of appreciation and protection are recognized as "World Heritage". As of 2022, 1,154 cultural and natural assets are reg- istered on the World Heritage List of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Orga- nization (UNESCO) worldwide, of which 897 are cultural, 218 are natural, and 39 are mixed (cultur- al/natural). As a result of the work carried out under the Min- istry of Culture and Tourism, Türkiye is home to 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 17 cultural and two mixed, as of 2022. Mixed heritage sites con- tain elements of both natural and cultural signifi- cance. In addition, Türkiye has many places on the UNESCO Tentative List of World Heritage Sites. As of 2022, the number of sites of cultural, historical, and natural value in Türkiye on the Tentative List has reached 84. They are of great historical signifi- cance and deserve protection and international recognition. 17 of these assets are listed as cultural assets: • Historical Sites of İstanbul [1985] • Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği (Sivas) [1985] • Hattusha (Boğazköy): Hittite Capital (Çorum) [1986] • Nemrut Dağ (Mount Nemrut) (Adıyaman) [1987] • Xanthos-Letoon (Antalya - Muğla) [1988] • City of Safranbolu (Karabük) [1994] • Archaeological Site of Troy (Çanakkale) [1998] • Edirne Selimiye Mosque and its Social Com- plex (Edirne) [2011] • Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük (Konya) [2012] • Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape (İzmir) [2014] TÜRKİYE ON UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE LIST 214 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • Bursa and Cumalıkızık: The Birth of the Otto- man Empire (Bursa) [2014] • Diyarbakır Fortress and Hevsel Gardens Cul- tural Landscape (Diyarbakır) [2015] • Ephesus (İzmir) [2015] • Archaeological Site of Ani (Kars) [2016] • Aphrodisias (Aydın) [2017] • Göbeklitepe Archaeological Site (Şanlıurfa) [2018] • Arslantepe Mound (Malatya) [2021] Two of them are listed as both a cultural and a natural heritage. • Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia (Nevşehir-Kayseri) [1985] • Hierapolis-Pamukkale (Denizli) [1988] Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği (Sivas) Arslantepe Mound (Malatya) Türkiye on the UNESCO’s Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage UNESCO has created the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding, and the Register of Good Safeguard- ing Practices in order to make the intangible cul- tural heritage visible, increase public awareness regarding their significance, and promote dialogue while respecting cultural diversity. These lists are updated annually based on newly registered ele- ments by member states. In this regard, the Min- istry of Culture and Tourism seeks to protect and preserve the rich cultural treasures of our country on a national and international scale and to safe- ly pass them on to the future. Due to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism's ef- forts, Türkiye is the fourth country with the high- est number of cultural values registered on UNES- CO’s Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage, with 21 elements. The following are the elements that we have inscribed on UNESCO's Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritages and their registration years: • Arts of the Meddah, Public Storytellers (2008) • Mawlawi Sema Ceremony (2008) • Ashik (Minstrelsy) Tradition (2009) • Nawrouz, Novruz, Nowrouz, Nowrouz, Naw- rouz, Nauryz, Nooruz, Nowruz, Navruz, Nevruz, Nowruz, Navruz (Multinational File with Türkiye, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeki- stan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan) (2009&2016) • Karagöz (2009) • Traditional Sohbet Meetings (2010) • Kırkpınar Oil Wrestling Festival (2010) • Semah, Alawi-Bektashi Ritual 2010) • Ceremonial Keşkek Tradition (2011) 215 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • Mesir Macunu Festival (2012) • Turkish Coffee Culture and Tradition (2013) • Ebru, Turkish Art of Marbling (2014) • Traditional Craftsmanship of Çini-Making (2016) • Flatbread Making and Sharing Culture: La- vash, Katyrma, Jupka, Yufka (Multinational File with Türkiye, Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakh- stan, and Kyrgyzstan) (2016) • Spring Celebration: Hıdrellez (Multination- al File with Türkiye and North Macedonia) (2017) • Whistled Language (2017) (UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding) • Heritage of Dede Qorqud/ Korkyt Ata/ Dede Korkut, Epic Culture, Folk Tales and Music (Multinational File with Türkiye, Azerbaijan, and Kazakhstan) (2018) • Traditional Turkish Archery (2019) • Traditional intelligence and strategy game: Togyzqumalaq, Toguz Korgool, Mangala/ Göçürme (Multinational File with Türkiye, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan) (2020) • Art of Miniature (Multinational File with Tür- kiye, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Uzbekistan) (2020) • Hüsn-i Hat, Traditional Calligraphy in Islamic Art in Türkiye (2021) Türkiye is recognised as one of the leading na- tions in this area as a result of our nation's efforts, which also benefit our nation's cultural diplomacy and cultural economy. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, which is the executive unit of the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, to which our country became a party in 2006, continues its national and international endeavours intensively to establish our country's rich cultural heritage as the common heritage of humanity. UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Central Anatolia Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği, Sivas UNESCO World Heritage List 1985 Sivas is a significant city in central Türkiye and has long served as the eastern gateway to central Ana- tolia. Divriği, 150 km east of Sivas, is renowned for the complex of the Great Mosque of Divriği. The complex has a mosque and an adjoining hospital. An important aspect of the three-dimensional decorating of the two entrances of the mosque is the employment of shadows that create a huge sil- houette of a praying man, shifting his stance as the sun moves. The mosque's interior is composed of stone walls supporting stone vaults. The entrance to the hospital is located on the west side. The hos- pital's rooms surround a covered courtyard with a small pool. The whole structure was constructed 216 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Hagia Sophia Mosque ayasofyacamii.gov.tr 217 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 218 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD during the Mengüjek period in the 13th century. Both buildings are considered among the finest examples of Anatolian architecture due to their so- phisticated carvings and design. Neolithic City of Çatalhöyük UNESCO World Heritage List 2012 Çatalhöyük is located 40 km east of Konya, near the modern city of Çumra, and was identified as the world's first urban settlement when it was ini- tially unearthed in the 1960s. It was assumed that the chambers at Çatalhöyük were temples, and their complex social organisation distinguished it from other Neolithic settlements. The elabo- rately decorated houses and complex artefacts un- earthed here suggest a more advanced civilisation than is typical for villages. The excavations at Çatalhöyük's Eastern Mound uncovered 18 Neolithic settlement layers dating between 7400 and 6200 B.C. The houses in this settlement are built from sun-dried bricks. There were no streets or alleyways between the build- ings, and roofs served as the entrance to the hous- es. Archaeological evidence indicates that the in- habitants of Çatalhöyük were hunters and fishers, cultivated wheat and barley, and transported ob- sidian from long distances. Hundreds of Anatolian Mother Goddess sculptures, wall murals, and oth- er relics uncovered at Çatalhöyük are on display at the Ankara Museum of Anatolian Civilisations. Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia, Nevsehir-Kayseri UNESCO World Heritage List 1985 Göreme is possibly the most well-known city in Cappadocia. In fact,  Cappadocia and Göreme are frequently used interchangeably. Göreme is situated at the heart of Cappadocia, roughly 12 km east of the province  of Nevşehir. The city of Göreme is reminiscent of a fairy tale owing to its rock-hewn houses, stunning traditional buildings constructed of local tuff limestone, and fantas- tic cave hotels that offer guests a unique place to stay. The city's reputation and history stem from surrounding Christian monasteries dating back to the eighth through eleventh centuries and are classified as open-air museums. Göreme Open Air Museum, 4 km east of the city, is easily accessible. Commonly, rock-hewn churches feature exquisite frescoes. 219 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Southeastern Anatolia Archaeological Site of Ani, Kars UNESCO World Heritage List 2016 Ani is situated 50 km  east of Kars along  the Ar- paçay River, which  forms a natural border with Armenia. The Arpaçay River has a significant im- pact on the geography of eastern Anatolia. Ani was once a thriving metropolis renowned as the "city of a thousand and one churches." In the 10th century A.D., it served as the capital of the Armenian king- dom of the Bagratides. Ani was situated on trade routes and became a walled city with about 100,000 residents in the eleventh century. In the years that followed, Eastern Roman emperors, Ot- toman Turks, Georgians, and Russians conquered Ani and its surroundings. A dramatic deterioration began in Ani in 1300 A.D., and the city was totally deserted by 1700. Today, the majority of the churches are still stand- ing, and the streets, baths, early period mosques, and massive fortress walls are still impressive. Because of its geographic position, Ani has stood the test of time for around 2,500 years. Once one of the Silk Road's cultural, political, and commercial centres, this city's architecture integrates local, re- ligious, and military elements, forming a picture of medieval urbanism created by succeeding Chris- tian and Muslim rulers over the centuries. Diyarbakır Fortress and Hevsel Gardens, Diyarbakır UNESCO World Heritage List 2015 Diyarbakır is one of the largest cities in the South- eastern Anatolia Region. Since the Hellenistic pe- riod, through the Roman, Sassanid, Byzantine, Is- lamic, and Ottoman times, and to the present day, the city and its surroundings, which were fortified for defensive purposes, have been an important multicultural centre. The city is a historical and cultural treasure due to its ancient ruins, stunning architecture, exquisite cuisine. Unique to this city are the well-preserved city walls and 700 hectares of cultivated and fertile land near the Tigris River in Hevsel Gardens. 220 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Göbeklitepe, Şanlıurfa UNESCO World Heritage List 2018 Göbeklitepe is possibly the most well-known and widely-discussed archaeological site in the last decade. Since its discovery in the 1990s, excava- tion has been ongoing. Göbeklitepe is situated 20 km northeast of Şanlıurfa. Huge anthropomorphic statues dating back to 11,000 to 12,000 B.C. are ex- ceptional for this time period. Given the absence of metal tools, it is astonishing to consider that the sculptures were created using only stone tools. There is no pottery or evidence of a settlement on this  site;  however,  this cult centre implies that  a highly developed and structured civilization lived nearby. Interestingly, it turned out that the struc- tures of Göbeklitepe were not buried by natural causes but rather were intentionally covered over by the ancient people who formerly lived there. The explanation behind this remains a mystery. A recent study in the region has uncovered similar structures from the same time period. Nemrut Dağ (Mount Nemrut), Adıyaman UNESCO World Heritage List 1987 Nemrut Dağ is approximately 50 km from Adıyaman. The mountain is the monumental tomb of King Antiochus Theos I (69-34 BC), the most famous ruler of the Commagene Kingdom. Antiochus, a late Hellenistic ruler, is thought to have built this mausoleum for himself and deco- rated the entire area above the burial chamber with colossal statues. The size and sophisticated structure of this monumental tomb are unique in the ancient world. As you climb to the peak, three different terraces (eastern, northern and western) greet you. The eastern and western terraces have been well preserved. On the east terrace, there are the Gallery of the Gods, the Gallery of Ancestors and the altar. The main sculptural group is the fig- ure of five gods, representing the pantheon of the religious cult. These figures are guarded by statues of a lion and eagle standing on either side. The lion, the king of animals, represents earthly power, and the eagle, the herald of the gods, represents heav- enly power. There are almost the same sculptures on the west terrace. 221 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Arslantepe Mound, Malatya UNESCO World Heritage List 2021 Arslantepe Mound is located in the heart of the fertile Malatya Plain, approximately 12 kilometres from the Euphrates River. It is a tumulus (mound) with 4 hectares and a 30-metre-tall on the plain. In the earliest stages of its history, around the 5th mil- lennium BC during the Chalcolithic period, this set- tlement had close ties to the Mesopotamian world, with which it shared many cultural characteristics. The king’s palace, which was unearthed, is an open- air museum and the artefacts unearthed in the area are exhibited in the Malatya Archaeology Museum. Aegean Region UNESCO Heritage Sites Xanthos-Letoon, Muğla UNESCO World Heritage List 1988 The Lycian hero Sarpedon in the Iliad says, “I came from afar, even from Lycia, from the swirling Xan- thos river.” Indeed, Xanthos was the capital of Ly- cia in the early days of Lycia. Residents of the city have committed mass suicide at least twice in the city’s history rather than surrender to the enemy. The first was during the Persian invasion in 546 BC, and the second was in the 1st century BC when Brutus came to Lycia to gather strength. Relics from the city’s glory days can be found all over the city. In a typical Lycian tradition, the city centre is deco- rated with beautiful Lycian tombs, with reliefs and inscriptions mostly in Lycian, Indo-European and Greek. The Xanthos River (Eşen River in Turkish) flows by the city, and the view of the acropolis is extraordi- nary. Visitors first arrive at the city gate and, on their way to the Agora, encounter the foundations of the Nereid Monument, now in the British Museum. In the Agora, there are Lycian tomb monuments that are unique in all ancient times. Just north of the Acropolis, there is a beautiful theatre overlooking the Roman Agora. During the Byzantine and Hel- lenistic periods, a church was built in the northeast corner, while an advanced defensive structure pro- tected the western side of the castle along the river. Not far from Xanthos, just 10 km south of the Ly- cian city, is Letoon, the cult centre of Xanthos. Letoon was the federal shelter of the Lycian prov- ince and the Lycian League. Archaeological exca- vations show that the sanctuary dates back to the 7th century BC. During the Hellenistic period, three temples were built here: a temple dedicated to Leto in the middle and temples dedicated to Artemis and Apollo on either side of the Leto temple. Just as in Roman poet Ovid’s narrative, Zeus fell in love with the nymph Leto. When Leto became pregnant by Zeus, his jealous wife, Hera, expelled Leto from the Island of Delos. Leto came to Lycia and gave birth to twins Artemis and Apollo. This version of mythol- ogy attests to Lucia as the birthplace of the gods Artemis and Apollo. Three temples were excavated by French archaeologists. The site also contains the relics of a nymphaeum dating back to the Roman Emperor Hadrian. 222 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Aphrodisias, Aydın UNESCO World Heritage List 2017 Aphrodisias is a very well-preserved city in an- cient Caria. The protected area, located 100 km east of Aydın, can be easily visited with a day trip from Aydın, İzmir and even Antalya. The city was famous for the Temple of Aphrodite, marble stat- ues and sculptors in ancient times. Aphrodisias prospered during the Roman Empire when the Romans claimed their ancestry through Aphrodite and her son Aeneas. Aphrodite of Aphrodisias, similar to Artemis of Ephesus, is a continuation of the Anatolian Mother Goddess, as seen in her iconography. There was a strong presence of the Anatolian Mother Goddess cult in Anatolia since the Neolithic period. The high-quality marble quarries near the city and the qualified sculptors of Aphrodisias brought im- mense wealth and prosperity to the city during the Roman period. The oldest settlement in the city dates back to the Chalcolithic period; during this period and until the Bronze Age, the hill of the theatre was a mound. Aphrodisias was located far from the coastline and the main roads in the later periods. As a result, the city was protected from archaeological looting for centuries. Extensive ex- cavations by archaeologists for over 60 years have unearthed numerous buildings and hundreds of high-quality sculptures. These sculptures and excellent reliefs are exhibited in the Aphrodisias Museum. Restorations of the Propylon and Sebas- teion give visitors a great idea of what the city once looked like. The Propylon is a huge gate to the floor of the Temple of Aphrodite, and the Sebasteion is a temple with a beautiful stoa decorated with re- liefs depicting the lives and achievements of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and mythological scenes. The theatre, Agora, odeon/bouleuterion, baths and Türkiye’s largest stadium with a capacity of 30,000 spectators are almost intact. The village of Geyre, which was built on the ancient city in the past but was relocated in the 1960s, offers its visi- tors traditional houses and architecture. Ephesus, İzmir UNESCO World Heritage List 2015 The Bronze Age Kingdom of Apasas, the capital of Arzawa, became known as "Ephesus" in the 1st mil- lennium. Ephesus is located 70 km south of İzmir, near the modern city of Selçuk. Recent excavations at Ayasuluk Hill have revealed a Bronze Age settle- 223 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ment and traces of a Mycenean settlement on the same hill. Other excavations in the valley of the Küçük Menderes River (known in antiquity as the Kaystros or Caystrus River) have uncovered a Neo- lithic settlement at Ephesus. Archaic Ephesus was located around the Temple of Artemis. The god- dess Artemis was a direct continuation of the Ana- tolian Mother Goddess. She was called "Artemis of Ephesus" to avoid confusion with the Greek Arte- mis, the huntress, and daughter of Zeus. The old- est temple dedicated to Artemis dates back to the 8th century BC and has been rebuilt at least thrice. The Temple of Artemis, built in the 4th century BC, is recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Its fame reached far and wide, be- coming a place of pilgrimage for merchants, kings, and travelers, many of whom paid homage to Arte- mis in jewelry and various other offerings. This ancient city was moved to its present site, probably in the 1st century BC, when the River Kys- tros (now the Küçük Menderes River) filled with mud. When Augustus declared himself emperor in 27 BC, he made Ephesus the capital of the Roman province of Asia. This new city grew enormously and flourished for almost 1,000 years until Kystros also filled the harbors of the new Ephesus. The city has been excavated for over 120 years. The theater here is the largest in Türkiye, with a capac- ity of 30,000 spectators. The Library of Celsus, the Gate of Mazaeus and Mithridates, the Temple of Hadrian, and the Terrace Houses, where wealthy Roman families lived, are among Ephesus's mag- nificent buildings. The baths, gymnasium, and two agoras (one commercial and one government) are in excellent condition. A full day in Ephesus is not enough to see the en- tire archeological site. The nearby House of the Virgin Mary, the Basilica and the Tomb of St John are places of pilgrimage. In addition, the Selçuk Museum houses incredible artifacts from Ephesus and the surrounding area. Pergamon and Its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape, İzmir UNESCO World Heritage List 2014 The capital of the great Kingdom of Pergamon during the Hellenistic period, Pergamon was the political and intellectual center of the Aegean. The ancient city lies northwest of the modern city of Pergamon and about 115 km north of İzmir. Research in the region reveals that the settlement here dates back to prehistoric times. However, the city became the kingdom's capital during the reign 224 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD of Philetaerus in the 4th century BC. Philetaerus founded the Attalid dynasty, which ruled Pergam- on from 281 BC to 133 BC. Significantly during the rule of the Attalid ruler Eumenes in the 3rd century BC, Pergamon greatly expanded its territory and managed to control almost the entire Aegean re- gion. The city was not only a political stronghold but also a center of learning and culture. Pergamon was the center of parchment production, a writing mate- rial made from untanned animal hides. The name is a derivation of the word "pergamenos" (from Pergamon). The Library of Pergamon, containing some 200,000 volumes of books, was second only to the Library of Alexandria. The city's Asclepion (Temple of Asclepius) was one of the most remark- able healing centers of the ancient world. Attalus III, the last king of Pergamon, ceded his kingdom to Rome, and Roman rule began in Anatolia thanks to Pergamon. The city remained an important center during the Roman and Byz- antine periods. It was one of the Seven Churches of Revelation, the seven great churches of early Christianity mentioned in the New Testament. The city can be visited in two parts, the Upper Acropolis and the Lower Acropolis. The Upper Acropolis has features typical of Anatolian settle- ments such as Troy and Hattusha: a well-defended hill surrounded by walls and royal palaces, as well as structures that provided the basic needs of this palace, such as storage and cisterns. The most fa- mous structure of the Upper Acropolis, the Hel- lenistic Pergamon Altar was probably dedicated to Zeus and Athena. The altar is decorated with a high relief representing the battle of the Olympian gods against the giants (known as Gigantomachy). The foundations of the altar remain, but the reliefs are now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, Ger- many. Another giant structure on Acropolis Hill is the Trajaneum, a temple dedicated to the Roman Emperor Trajan and Zeus Philios. Finally, The Hel- lenistic Pergamon Theater, built on a steep hill, is a fine example of the engineering skills of this pe- riod. The Lower Acropolis, the Temple of Demeter, and the private houses and market areas reflect the perfect layout of a Hellenistic city. The Temple of Serapis on the edge of Pergamon, today known as the "Red Basilica", is a monument not to be missed. The Pergamon Museum is the perfect way to complete this visit after visiting the Sanctuary of Asclepius at the foot of the Acropolis. Dedicated to Asclepius, the god of healing, the healing center is exceptionally well preserved, with many struc- tures surviving to the present day. Hierapolis-Pamukkale, Denizli UNESCO World Heritage List 1988 Hierapolis, meaning "Holy City", is located 25 km north of Denizli and was founded as a thermal spa on hot springs in classical Phrygia. Hierapolis is adjacent to Pamukkale. Calcite-laden waters de- rived from springs on a cliff about 200 m above the Çürüksu Plain have created an unreal landscape of mineral forests, petrified waterfalls and terraced basins. 225 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The nearby Hellenistic spa town, Hierapolis was founded by the Attalid kings of Pergamon at the end of the 2nd century BC and was the site of an an- cient cult. Hierapolis flourished, reaching its peak in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The ruins include baths, a temple, a colossal arch, a nymphaeum, a necropolis, and a theater. Hierapolis was made a bishopric after Emperor Constantine officially converted to Christianity and founded Constanti- nople as the "New Rome" in 330 AD. It is believed that the Apostle Philip died here in 80 AD, and a mausoleum was built in his honor in the 5th cen- tury. Marmara Region UNESCO Heritage Sites Archaeological Site of Troy, Çanakkale UNESCO World Heritage List 1998 Troy, or Troia as mentioned in Homer's Iliad, is located 30 kilometres west of Çanakkale at the entrance to the Dardanelles. The strait forms the backdrop of the legend of Hero and Leander, the famous lovers of Greek mythology. It also has an important place in history. In 480 BC, the Persian army of Xerxes I crossed the strait on a pontoon bridge, and Alexander the Great did the same in his campaign against the Persians in 334 BC. The strait has always been of great strategic and eco- nomic importance as the gateway from the Medi- terranean to Constantinople and the Black Sea; "the winds brought wealth to Troy". Indeed, the strong north winds of this region made it difficult to cross the Dardanelles, and the downward coun- ter-current at the bottom of the Dardanelles made the situation even worse. Sailors discovered that placing a deep net under the boat allowed them to catch this counter-current and cross the strait. In any case, boats had to anchor in the harbours of Troy, and being located at the crossroads, the trade made the city extremely wealthy. Prosperity led to cultural wealth, and excavations confirmed a wealth comparable to that described in the Iliad. The excavations revealed a sequence of nine main layers representing nine periods. In 2019, another layer was discovered, dating Troy back to 3600 BC. Troy VII, which was destroyed by fire sometime in the 13th century BC, is presumed to be the city of King Priam described in Homer's Iliad. Homer immortalised Troy in the stories of King Priam, Hector, Paris and the beautiful Helen. A symbolic wooden Trojan horse was built to commemorate the legendary battle. Recent excavations have left no doubt that Troy was an Anatolian city. The dis- covery of a Chalcolithic mound in the Dardanelles closed the historical gap, and a Luwian seal proved the city's Luwian connection. Hittite texts mention a treaty between the Hittites and Alakshandush, Prince of Wilusha, better known in the Iliad as Al- exander of Ilios, the Paris of Troy. Greek Troy was called "Wilusa / Taurisa" in the Bronze Age. Today, the city walls of Troy VI stand as a reminder of the beautiful Homeric city that resisted the Greeks. The Temple of Athena, the central megaron com- plex of Troy II, the Palace of Priam from Troy VI, the Temple of Demeter, the Odeon and the nearby Bouleuterion from Roman times are still in rea- sonably good condition. The new museum in Troy houses valuable artefacts from the site and many of Troy's treasures. 226 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Sümela Monastery www.sumela.gov.tr 227 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 228 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Bursa and Cumalıkızık: The Birth of the Ottoman Empire, Bursa UNESCO World Heritage List 2014 The Ottoman Empire was one of the most impor- tant empires in the world and perhaps one of the longest-lived, with a rule of 600 years. The Hittite, Roman and Ottoman Empires shared many com- mon features, such as common laws, respect for all religious beliefs, state protection of trade, and guarantees of security and justice. The Turks came from Central Asia and entered Anatolia in 1071 AD, defeating the Byzantines on the eastern border. Numerous Turkic tribes settled all over Anatolia, and one of them, led by Osman, sowed the seeds of a world empire in Söğüt, near Bursa. The word "Ottoman", derived from "Osman", became known as "Ottoman" in the West. Soon Osman and his son Orhan expanded the em- pire's borders and moved its first capital to Bursa. Bursa was the capital of the Ottoman Empire be- tween 1335 and 1363. In the Ottoman language, the city was called "Hüdavendigar", meaning "God's gift". Bursa has several monuments from the early Ottoman period, such as the Grand Mosque, the Grand or Silk Bazaar, the Green Mosque, and the Osman and Orhan Tombs. In the castle area, there are many houses reflecting late Ottoman archi- tecture. Uludag, formerly Mysian Olympus, rises above Bursa and has a well-known ski resort. Bur- sa also has thermal baths, old Ottoman mansions, palaces and various museums. Cumalıkızık is a famous village 10 km from Bursa, displaying the early Ottoman architectural style of civilian country houses. It was built during the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Orhan Gazi (1326- 1360) as a foundation (charitable donation accord- ing to Islamic law) village at the foot of Uludag. There are 270 historical houses in Cumalıkazık. Most of the houses in Cumalıkızık have three floors. These houses were built adjacent to each other to create an environment of brotherhood, co- operation and good neighbourly relations. Family privacy is an important consideration when build- ing houses. The materials used are wood, masonry and rubble stone; the cobbled streets are narrow and have a medieval gutter system. Together, Bur- sa and Cumalıkızık represent the formation of an urban and rural system established to bring pros- perity and development to the first capital of the Ottoman Empire. Historical Sites of Istanbul, Istanbul UNESCO World Heritage List 1985 Istanbul was the capital of two great world em- pires: The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Serving as the capital for almost 1,600 years, Istanbul is perhaps the rich- est open-air museum in the world. The city's long 229 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and multicultural history is reflected in countless buildings of immeasurable cultural value. The UNESCO World Heritage Site includes many mag- nificent monuments such as Sarayburnu, Topkapi Palace, Hagia Sophia Mosque, Blue Mosque, Hagia Irene, Zeyrek Mosque, Suleymaniye Mosque, Little Hagia Sophia and the Land Walls of Istanbul. The Historic Sites of Istanbul, which were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1985, include the Sultanahmet Archaeological Site, the Sleymaniye Conservation Area, the Zeyrek Conservation Area and the Istanbul Land Walls Conservation Area. Selimiye Mosque and Its Social Complex, Edirne UNESCO World Heritage List 2011 The most famous architect of the Ottoman period is undoubtedly Mimar Sinan, who lived in the 16th century during the reign of Suleiman the Magnifi- cent when the Ottoman Empire was at its peak. The Selimiye Mosque is located in Edirne, called Hadri- anopolis in ancient times, which was the capital of the Ottoman Empire before Istanbul. Sinan consid- ered the Selimiye Mosque to be his "masterpiece". He built the Selimiye Mosque (1568-1575) at the age of 80 by order of Sultan Selim II. The mosque's loca- tion, which can be seen even from distant points of the city, shows that Sinan was also an important ur- ban planner. The large central dome of the mosque, which reaches its climax in Sinan's works in central domed plans, rises on eight large pillars with im- pressive, recessed porticoes between them. Selimiye Mosque is the most beautiful example of a mosque with eight pillars. The graceful domes reaching the skies and the soaring, slender minarets reflect the hallmark of Ottoman mosque architecture, yet few mosques are as visually striking and architecturally significant. The Selimiye Mosque Complex is quite large, measuring 190x130 metres, and consists of the mosque, two square madrasas, an arasta (shop- ping centre) and a theological school. The dome rests on a crown of eight muqarnas supported by eight large columns. The muqarnas rise outwards to create a view directly towards the dome, uninter- rupted by the columns, creating an overlapping ef- fect and thus providing a more open space below. Black Sea Region UNESCO World Heritage Sites City of Safranbolu, Karabük UNESCO World Heritage List 1994 Safranbolu, known as Saframpolis in ancient times, was an important city in the ancient region of Paphlagonia. Safranbolu is located in the West- ern Black Sea Region, 230 km north of Ankara and 10 km from Karabük. Almost nothing from its an- tiquity has survived. The city was an important caravan stop on the main East-West trade route and became the region's financial centre. Safran- bolu consists of three historical districts: The in- ner city marketplace area known as Çukur; the Kıranköy area, and Bağlar. As the name suggests, 230 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Çukur is located in the lower part of the town and is surrounded by two rivers. Traditional houses and artisan shops surround the marketplace. The town centre represents a typical Anatolian city centre, a bazaar (open market area). Kıranköy was a non-Muslim neighbourhood, and tradespeople and artisans lived above their shops in the typical architectural style of the period. The houses here are made of stone, while the houses in Çukur are made of wood. The Bağlar neighbourhood consists mainly of detached houses set in extensive gardens. This south-facing neighbourhood on the north-western slope of the city is the summer resort city. The streets in Safranbolu are mostly paved with stone, while the old houses are half-timbered with various building materials. No windows face the street, so the stone walls resemble extensions of garden walls. The rooms serve different purposes and are connected to halls called "lounge", which form an essential element of the house. Safranbolu is a typical Ottoman city with typical buildings and streets, and for centuries, it played an essential role in the caravan trade. This settle- ment developed as a trade centre after the Turkish conquest in the 11th century and became an impor- tant caravan station in the 13th century. The Old Mosque, Old Bath and Suleyman Pasha Madrasah were built in 1322. Hattusha (Boğazköy): Hittite Capital, Çorum UNESCO World Heritage List 1986 Hattusha, or Boğazköy as it is known today, is lo- cated in a fertile valley in Central Anatolia, 85 km from Çorum. It was the capital of the Hittites in the 2nd millennium BC. The ruins of temples and pal- aces, monumental statues and massive fortifica- tions with ceremonial gates and tunnels attest to the fact that this ancient city was once the centre of a great empire. Much has been learnt about the religion of the imperial people by studying the line of gods and goddesses carved on the walls of the open-air rock temple at Yazılıkaya. The relief of the Hittite pantheon constitutes one of the finest examples of the Hittite monumental relief sculp- ture in situ. Excavations have revealed that this re- gion was inhabited as early as the 5th millennium. Thousands of Hittite tablets brought to light have changed what is known about this period. When the Hittite texts were deciphered for the first time, scholars realised they belonged to a hitherto un- known influential empire of the 2nd millennium. This empire could compete with the Egyptian and Assyrian-Babylonian kingdoms. The Hittites es- tablished their dominance in the 2nd millennium and travelled as far as Kadesh (Syria), where they confronted the Egyptians. As a result, the world's first written peace treaty emerged between the Hit- tites and the Egyptians. Another interesting fact is that almost all Hittite gods are earlier versions of Greek gods. For example, the air god Teshub later became the Greek god Zeus, and Teshub's wife 231 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Hebat (or Hepatu) was transformed into Hera. Hit- tite texts also provide reference points for Egyp- tian texts. The city flourished especially in the 14th and 13th centuries BC and most of the monumen- tal buildings we see today date from this period. Like Troy and almost all Bronze Age settlements in Anatolia, Hattusha was abandoned and never recovered its prosperity after the 12th century BC. Today, visitors can visit Hattusha in two parts: Yazılıkaya, the Hittite open-air rock temple and the city itself. The Yazılıkaya rock temple is unique and is the largest open-air temple of this period. As you enter the temple you can see the founda- tions of a complex of buildings used as workrooms responsible for the maintenance of the temple. As you continue, reliefs appear on the rock surfaces. On the left are all male gods, and on the right are female goddesses. They all approach the main scene where Teshub and his wife Hebat, stand- ing on mountain lions, meet. Just ahead on the far right is a relief of the Hittite King Tudhaliya, who was responsible for constructing this temple. In the second room are reliefs of the 12 Hittite under- world gods; Nergal, "God of Sword" and King Tud- haliya, being embraced by the god Sharruma, son of Teshub and Hebat. It is also thought that this room may have a connection with Tudhaliya's fu- neral. Other vital monuments in Hattusha are the Great Temple, the Lion Gate, the Sphinx Gate, the King's Gate, the Yerkapı, the rampart and tunnel, the burial chambers, the Phrygian Fortress and the well-built fortifications. Both Boğazkale and Ço- rum Museums are significant and rich museums in this region. Sumela Monastery UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List 2020 Sümela Monastery, a Greek Orthodox monas- tery dedicated to the Virgin Mary, is located 35 km south of Trabzon and 8 km from Maçka dis- trict. The monastery's construction in the Pontus Mountains began in 385 AD and continued until the 19th century. According to one theory, the mon- astery was founded by the Athenian monks Barn- abas and his nephew Sophronios. The monastery became famous for an icon of the Virgin Mary, be- lieved to have been painted by the Apostle Luke. Recent conservation and preservation work has made it much easier to visit this magnificent mon- astery. Altındere National Park, where the mon- astery is located, adds much to the beauty of the landscape. 232 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Faith Tourism - Cradle of Faith: Anatolia T he lands of present-day Türkiye have been home to countless people and cultures throughout history. This accumulation has left many important monuments all over the coun- try. From ancient temples to modern mosques, Anatolia has played an important role in the his- tory of faith with countless sacred places dating back centuries. Modern Türkiye is home to various religious mon- uments, ruins and archaeological sites of deep cultural value to the world. Consequently, it is a vi- brant and highly favoured destination for religious visits. The primary faith destinations in Türkiye are listed below. Sacred Relics in Topkapi Palace Sultanahmet, İstanbul Topkapi Palace, the administrative and residential heart of the Ottoman Empire, is home to priceless relics kept in the Privy Chamber (Has Oda), the sultan's private chamber. The precious belong- ings of the Prophet Muhammad (saw) and special items belonging to Prophet Moses, Prophet Yusuf, Prophet Muhammad's (saw) daughter and son-in- law, and the key to the Kaaba were kept in Topkapı Palace for 500 years. The most important of the relics is the Prophet Muhammad's (saw) Holy Mantle, which was brought to Istanbul during the reign of Selim I. Another sacred relic is the beard of the Prophet Muhammad (saw). Ottoman Selâtin Mosques İstanbul - Edirne - Bursa Selâtin mosques are the names of the mosques built by the sultans during the Ottoman Empire. These were large mosques with more than one minaret. The first Selâtin mosques in the Otto- man period were the Great Mosque and the Green Mosque in Bursa, the first capital of the Ottoman TOURISM TYPES 234 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Empire. The oldest Selâtin Mosque in Istanbul, which preserves its original form, is the Bayezid Mosque, built by Sultan Bayezid II. Istanbul, the third and last capital of the Ottoman Empire, is home to the most significant Ottoman monu- ments. The Suleymaniye Mosque, built by Sultan Sulei- man the Magnificent to the court architect Mimar Sinan, offers the opportunity to visit a large Ot- toman mosque with its charming courtyard and surroundings. The Blue Mosque promises visitors the most beautiful examples of the famous İznik tiles. Visiting small and cosy mosques such as Rüstempaşa and Şehzade Mosque, together with the previously mentioned grand mosques, will provide a more comprehensive understanding of the Ottoman architectural taste. The Ottoman Empire was founded in three major capitals and left its mark on these cities with great architectural gems for nearly 600 years. Edirne, named after the Roman Emperor Hadrian, was the second capital of the Ottomans. There are marvellous monuments of Ottoman architecture here, such as the Beyazıt Complex, a former hos- pital complex, the magnificent Ottoman bridges over the River Meriç and Mimar Sinan's master- piece, the Selimiye Mosque. The old bazaar and the amazing food served here will make the visit even more memorable. Wooden Roofed and Wooden Columned Mosques in Anatolia Eskişehir – Ankara – Kastamonu – Konya – Afyon Seljuk and Ottoman wooden mosques in Anatolia are rare examples of religious architecture with wood and impressive handmade decorations. Mosques with wooden roofs and columns were concentrated in Konya, Ankara and Kastamonu during the Anatolian Seljuk and Principalities Pe- riods. During the Ottoman period, the tradition of building mosques with wooden roofs and wooden columns in regions far from the centre continued until the 20th century. "Mosques with Wooden Roofs and Wooden Columns in Anatolia" is includ- ed in the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List. Sivrihisar Great Mosque in Eskişehir is one of the mosques registered on the UNESCO World Heri- tage Tentative List within the scope of "Mosques with Wooden Roofs and Wooden Columns in Ana- tolia". The mosque is one of the best representa- tives of the monumental wooden mosque typol- ogy with the hypostyle plan and has survived from the Seljuk period to the present day. The eight-century-old Sivrihisar Great Mosque, where 2,500 people can worship simultaneously, is one of the rare examples of large wooden col- umned mosques in Anatolia. The word "great" has found its place in this work in the district's centre. Afyonkarahisar Great Mosque, one of the mosques registered on the UNESCO World Heritage Tenta- tive List within the scope of "Mosques with Wood- en Roofs and Wooden Columns in Anatolia", is an essential religious architectural structure of Af- yonkarahisar with its 40 cylindrical wooden poles. It was built between 1272-1277 during the Anato- lian Seljuks Period. The mosque, which was rebuilt in its old form, is one of the unique examples of the Seljuk Period with its glazed tiles and wooden and 235 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD brick architecture. The wooden beam roof extend- ing across nine naves is supported by 40 wooden columns whose capitals are adorned with pendant ornaments. Göğceli Mosque in Samsun is the oldest surviving wooden mosque in Türkiye. It is one of the most important examples of Turkish wooden architec- ture. No nails were used in the mosque's construc- tion, and the wooden beams were connected to each other with the cladding technique. There is no record of the construction date of the building, but according to radiocarbon tests, the mosque was built in 1206, and the last congregation place was built in 1335. The mosque underwent a com- prehensive restoration in 2007. Bekdemir Mosque is located in the Kavak district of Samsun. Although there is no construction in- scription of the wooden mosque in Bekdemir Vil- lage, the date 1877, mentioned in the pencil work inscription inside, is accepted as the embroidery date. According to research, the main floor was built in 1596. The mosque is another example of a wooden structure without nails. The mosque's in- terior is decorated with various floral motifs made of root paint and a stone fountain in the courtyard. Mahmutbey Mosque is located in the Kasaba Vil- lage of Kastamonu, 18 kilometres northwest of the city. Mahmutbey Mosque is one of the mosques registered in the UNESCO World Heritage Tenta- tive List within the scope of "Mosques with Wood- en Roofs and Wooden Columns in Anatolia". It was built in 1366 by Emir Mahmut Bey, the ruler of Candaroğulları Principality, as a Friday Mosque. The outer walls are built of rubble stone. The roof is entirely wooden and was built without metal nails or accents. One of the most unique and essential el- ements of the mosque is the door made by Abdul- lah, the son of Nakkaş Mahmut from Ankara. Beyşehir Eşrefoğlu Mosque, one of the mosques registered on the UNESCO World Heritage Tenta- tive List within the scope of "Mosques with Wood- en Roofs and Wooden Columns in Anatolia", is one of the earliest and best representatives of the wooden-supported and roofed mosque typology in Anatolia and was built between 1296-1299. The mosque is one of the most beautiful examples of Anatolia's wooden architectural tradition. It is like a wooden mosque museum in terms of its monu- mental crown gate, unique mihrab and minbar, and superior wooden and tile artistry. The entire mihrab is covered with a tile mosaic, and with its width of 4.58 metres and height of 6.17 metres, it is larger than all the tiled mihrabs around Konya. The minbar is made entirely of walnut wood with superior craftsmanship and rich ornamentation, carved, roofed and without glue; it is covered with octagonal, pentagonal, star and geometric fillings and floral decorations. The ceiling of the mosque has colourful pencil ornaments. Eşrefoğlu Mosque is one of the unique examples of the fea- tures seen in the mosques of the Seljuk period. In the mosque's construction, more than one wooden column, a ceiling decorated entirely with wood and pencil decorations, a mimbar made entirely of wood, and the kündekari technique was used. Re- flecting the splendour of the stone and woodwork of the period, the mosque was included in the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List in 2012. Aslanhane Mosque, located in the Samanpazarı neighbourhood of Ankara, is important work with its eight centuries of history, although it looks plain from the outside. The mosque, built by architect Ebubekir Mehmet and has rare woodwork, is also known as Ahi Şerafettin Mosque. The mosque was called Aslanhane Mosque because of the ancient lion statue embedded in the wall of the tomb com- plex to the east. The single-storey mosque stands on 24 wooden legs. The column capitals of each of these walnut wood legs, i.e. columns, are made of spolia marble Roman-Byzantine materials. With its architectural features and decorations, this Seljuk mosque fascinates visitors as soon as they step inside. 236 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The Way of Love in Sufism: Mevlana Konya – Galata, Üsküdar, Yenikapı / İstanbul – Gelibolu / Çanakkale- Tire / İzmir- Manisa- Afyon- karahisar - Gaziantep Dervish Lodges (Mevlevi- hane) After the Turks arrived in Anatolia in the 11th cen- tury, Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi and Hacı Bektaş Veli and their followers skilfully combined Islamic elements and traditional Turkish culture. The land of Anatolia, where they also had access to ancient sources and beliefs, was the perfect place for the integration of these ideas. The 13th century Sufi poet Mevlana's full name was Celaleddin-i Rumi. He is considered one of the world's greatest mystical philosophers. Mevlana's poetry and religious writings are among the most beloved and revered works beyond the Islamic world. The Sema and whirling dervish ceremony is attributed to Mevlana and has become a part of Turkish traditions, history, beliefs and culture. The Sema ceremony represents the mystical jour- ney of a person's spiritual ascension through mind and love on the path of the perfect human being. Konya, one of Türkiye's most important religious centres, is home to the old lodge of the whirling dervishes and the Mevlana Tomb. The mausoleum and the former lodge now serve as a museum for visitors of all faiths. Galata Mevlevi Lodge is the oldest Mevlevi lodge in Istanbul. It was built in 1491. The Mevlevi lodge was built as a complex and consists of many areas such as a Semahane, dervish rooms, fountain, cis- tern, women's section, library, muvakkithane (tim- ing room), kitchen, tomb and cemetery (hâmûşân). Hacı Bektaş Veli and Ahi-Order Tradition Kırşehir – Hacı Bektaş, Nevşehir – Gülşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli was a Sufi thinker who lived in the 13th century. He is a personality who thinks about human love and the structure of human existence and sees every human being, male or female, as equal. In the Cappadocia region, the Sufi Bektashi sect bearing his name was founded. Hacı Bektaş Veli is considered one of the most influential teachers of Alevism. Hacı Bektaş founded the world's first trade union, the Ahi-Order Tradition, which obliged all crafts- men to follow specific moral rules in their work and to train young artisans according to specific rules, established social customs and traditions. 237 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Route of Prophets Şanlıurfa The history of Şanlıurfa dates back to the Palaeo- lithic Age. The city and its surroundings have seen the dominance of many civilisations such as Su- merians, Akkadians, Hittites, Babylonians, Chal- deans, Hurrians, Mitanni Kingdom, Arameans, Assyrians, Medes and Persian Empires. The city, which has hosted people of different faiths throughout history, is known as the "City of Prophets" located on the cultural and trade routes from Mesopotamia to Anatolia. It is known that Prophet Abraham was born and raised here. Abraham incurred the wrath of King Nimrod for condemning idolatry and was sen- tenced to death. He was thrown into a large wood fire in the middle of the city, but Allah saved Abra- ham. Just as the flames were about to engulf Abra- ham, Allah commanded the fire: "O fire, be cool and peace towards Abraham" (Anbiya/69). The flames turned into water, and the logs into fish. The Balıklı Lake, Lake, known as Halil-ür Rahman, and Aynzeliha is the place where the fire in which Prophet Abraham was thrown turned into water. Both the lake and the carp fish in it are considered sacred. It is believed that Zeliha's tears turned into Lake Aynzeliha and anyone who drinks this water will become blind. The cave where Prophet Abraham was born is next to the Mevlid-i Halil Mosque near the lakes and is open to visitors. Prophet Abraham lived here for seven years. The Great Mosque, one of the city's most impor- tant symbols, was converted from a synagogue into a church called the Red Church in the 5th cen- tury. The handkerchief on which Jesus wiped his face preserving his image for eternity was found in the Great Mosque's garden. It is believed that the sacred cloth, known as the Image of Edessa, was a gift of Jesus Christ to King Abgar V. The Eyyüp Nebi Tomb is in the village of Eyyub Nebi, about 20 kilometres outside Urfa. The tomb of the Prophet Eyyüp and his wife Rahme and the tomb of the Prophet Elyesa are also located on the outskirts of the Viranşehir district. Today, the tomb of the Prophet Elyesa is in the village of Eyyub Nebi, one kilometre from the tomb of the Prophet Eyyub. The Prophet Shuayb is believed to have lived in the city of Shuayb, 85 kilometres east of Urfa. The cave house - the Maqam of the Prophet Shuayb - located among the ruins of the ancient city where the Prophet Shuayb is believed to have once lived is open to visitors. 238 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Cappadocia in the Early Christian Period Dark Church Göreme / Ürgüp / Avanos, Nevşehir – Niğde – Aksaray – Kayseri The geological structure of this wonderland in central Türkiye was formed millions of years ago by the eruption of three volcanoes surrounding the region. Thick ashes moulded by erosion turned into soft rocks known as "volcanic tuff". The influ- ence of wind and water has created the fairytale landscape, leaving only the harder elements be- hind. The area became a refuge for early Christians flee- ing Roman persecution, who built a network of handmade underground settlements. The monks excavated spacious dwellings and monasteries and decorated them with Eastern Roman frescoes. The first Christians settled in the triangle between Nyssa, Nazianzos and Caesareia. They lived a mo- nastic life according to the teachings of St Basil the Great (330-379 AD), who was appointed Bishop of Caesareia (today Kayseri) in 370 AD. St Basil the Great, together with the theologian Gregory of Nazianzos (Nevsehir) and his brother Gregory of Nyssa (Nigde), are known as the "Cap- padocian Fathers". This trio made the doctrine of the Trinity the creed of Christianity. St Basil the Great was born in Kaisareia city of Cappadocia in 330 AD. The first churches in the Göre Valley were built under his guidance. Small communities with their churches here formed the large monastic complex now known as the Gore- me Open Air Museum. The Buckle Church and the Dark Church in Goreme are exceptional examples with their graceful arches and beautiful frescoes. The first record of underground settlements in Cappadocia is found in Xenophon's Anabasis. However, various historical sources indicate that the first inhabitants of Derinkuyu's underground settlements were the Hittites. With its rich his- tory and unique geological formation, "Goreme National Park and Cappadocia" is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Eshab-ı Kehf (the Seven Sleepers) Cave Selçuk / İzmir – Tarsus / Mersin – Afşin / Kahramanmaraş The parable of the Seven Sleepers is found in both Christian and Islamic narratives. In the Islamic world, the parable of the Seven Sleepers is well known because it is described in verses 9 to 26 of Surah Kehf in the Holy Qur'an. In this Surah, the exact number of sleepers is not giv- en, but it is said that only Allah knows this num- ber. The parable mentions that these young people slept for 300 or 309 solar years. According to the Qur'an, a faithful dog also accompanies the youth to the cave and sleeps at the cave entrance. People passing by see the sleeping dog and are afraid to look inside, thinking it protects the cave's secrets. The sleepers are known as "Eshab-ı Kehf". The Christian version of the parable tells the story of seven young men who fled the persecution of the Roman Emperor Trajan Decius, who ruled be- tween 249-251 AD and were accused of being part of the Christian community. Fleeing the city to es- cape persecution, these Christian youths take ref- 239 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD uge in a cave. They are found sleeping in the cave, and the mouth of the cave is closed by the emper- or's order. Years pass and Christianity spreads and becomes the state's official religion. More than 250 years later, a landowner during the reign of Theo- dosius II (408-450 AD) decides to demolish the walls of the cave entrance. He is surprised to find seven men sleeping inside. When they wake up, they are sure they only slept for one day. The Seven Churches İzmir – Manisa – Denizli The Book of Revelation addresses seven churches in Anatolia with seven letters. Each letter pro- claimed by Jesus and recorded by St John the Apostle announces the triumphs and failures of the receiving churches and warns each congrega- tion that they must repent. The Seven Churches of Revelation belong to the early Christian communities in Anatolia. It is thought that these seven churches may have been chosen to receive Christ's apocalyptic message, as they are located on an established, circular trade route that brings together the most populous and influential areas of cities. All of the Seven Churches of Revelation are located in the Aegean Region. • Ephesus (Selçuk-Ephesus/İzmir) • Smyrna (İzmir) • Pergamon (Pergamon/İzmir) • Thyatira (Akhisar/Manisa) • Sardis (Salihli/Manisa) • Philadelphia (Alaşehir/Manisa) • Laodicea (Denizli) Ecumenical Councils in Anatolia İstanbul – İznik, Bursa – Ephesus / Selçuk, İzmir The first seven ecumenical councils were held in Anatolia, especially in the cities of Istanbul, Selçuk (İzmir) and Bursa. The seven councils held be- tween 325 and 787 AD are primarily known for considering doctrinal conflicts. The councils also decided on practical matters set in canons. A jour- ney to the ancient environments of these seven councils is possible with a tour that covers histori- cal places and magnificent monuments in İznik, Istanbul and İzmir. • The First Seven Ecumenical Councils • First Council of Nicaea (325 AD), İznik, Bursa • First Council of Constantinople (381 AD), Is- tanbul • First Council of Ephesus (431 AD), Selçuk, İzmir • Council of Chalcedon (451 AD), Kadıköy, Istan- bul • Second Council of Constantinople (553 AD), Istanbul • Third Council of Constantinople (680-681 AD), Istanbul • Second Council of Nicaea (787 AD), İznik, Bursa 240 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Visit to the House of the Virgin Mary Selçuk - İzmir House of the Virgin Mary - Basilica of St John - Temple of Artemis, Ephesus - Sirince Village The Council of Ephesus (431 AD) decides that the Virgin Mary spent her last years around Ephesus. The Apostle St John also travels through Anatolia, starting from Ephesus. It is also seen that the first pilgrims of human history came to worship the Anatolian goddess known as Cybele. Later, this god was united with the Greek goddess Artemis, and the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, which at- tracted pilgrims from all over the Mediterranean Region, was worshipped as Artemision. These an- cient mother goddess cults were reflected in how to worship the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus, who was later believed to have spent the last years of her life in Ephesus. The Apostle St John is bur- ied on Ayasuluk Hill in the Selçuk district, where the Byzantine Emperor Justinian built an impres- sive basilica in the 6th century. According to this rumour, Mary came to Ephesus with St John and they spent the last years of their lives here. Following a dream of Anne Catherine Emmerich, Lazarist priests discovered this house where Mary and St John had lived. They saw that the locals of Şirince Village have been celebrating a day called "the Virgin Mary's falling asleep" at this point for centuries. The House of the Virgin Mary can be visited today with the Sacred Fountain and the historical Wishing Wall around it. In the Footsteps of St Paul Antakya – Tarsus – Antalya – Isparta – Konya – Denizli – Aydın – İzmir – Çanakkale – Eskişehir Saint Paul was born in the city of Tarsus, in Cili- cia, in southeastern Türkiye, around the 5th cen- tury AD. During his various missionary travels, St Paul travelled to many parts of Anatolia, spread- ing the words of the Christ. Paul's life and travels are learned from a book called Paul's Letters and Acts. Paul travelled more than 10,000 miles by sea and made three missionary journeys on foot with his companions. It is known that Paul went from Jerusalem to Rome on his fourth journey and died there. Highlights of St Paul's Journeys in Contemporary Türkiye: • First Journey: Antioch (Antakya) - Seleucia Pieria (Samandağ) - Perge (Antalya) - Pisidian Antioch (Yalvaç/Isparta) - Iconium (Konya) - Lystra (Konya) - Derbe (Konya) - Attalia (An- talya) • Second Journey: Antioch - Derbe - Lystra - Ga- latia - Phrygia - Mycenae - Alexandria Troas - Ephesus • Third Journey: Antioch - Galatia - Ephesus - Alexandria Troas - Assos - Miletus - Patara • Journey to Rome: Myra (and Andriake Port) - Knidos House of St Nicholas Myra / Demre – Patara / Antalya St Nicholas, or Santa Klaus as he is best known in the West, was born and raised in Lycia, the ancient civilisation of South Asia. He was born in the fa- mous Lycian city of Patara and served as the mi- raculous bishop of Myra in the 4th century. St Nich- olas is the patron saint of children, merchants and sailors. One of his most famous miracles is that he 241 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD saved three young girls from forced marriage by secretly throwing the gold used as dowry by their fathers out of the window of their house. The church dedicated to him and his tomb in the ancient city of Myra, known today as Demre, are places where many believers go as part of pasto- ral visits. In addition, Gemile Island, off the coast of Fethiye, is today home to the remains of many Byzantine churches built between the 4th and 7th centuries AD. Jewish Heritage in Türkiye İstanbul – Edirne – Bursa – Manisa – İzmir The Jewish people have deep historical ties with Anatolia. Remains of Jewish settlements in an- cient cities such as Sardis along the Aegean, Medi- terranean and the Black Sea coasts date back to the 4th century BC. Two bronze plaques mounted on a column found in Ankara show the rights granted to Jews by Emperor Augustus. The Ottoman Em- pire welcomed Jews throughout its existence. In the early 14th century, some Jews expelled from Western Europe settled in Ottoman lands. There has been a Jewish community in Istanbul for over 1,000 years, and there are several syna- gogues on the Asian and European sides of the city. Neve Shalom Synagogue is the largest synagogue in Türkiye. Neve Shalom, Ahrida Synagogue and Yanbol Synagogue in Balat, Ashkenazi Synagogue in Karaköy and Etz Ahayim Synagogue in Ortaköy are the most visited synagogues in Istanbul. Edirne Grand Synagogue is a building restored in 1905. It was inspired by the famous Leopold- städter Tempel, the largest synagogue in Vienna, and aimed to show the achievements and moder- nity of the community. French architect France Depré designed the Grand Synagogue of Edirne in Moorish Revival style. The new synagogue was built in the Suriçi neighbourhood, replacing the Mayor Synagogue and the Apulia Synagogue. There are Gerush Synagogue, Mayor Synagogue and Etz Ahayim Synagogue in Bursa. İzmir (Smyrna) İzmir's Jewish heritage has a unique character, with Sephardic traditions and architectural styles of synagogues inspired by medieval Spain. The Sephardic synagogues in the Kemeraltı Havra Street area and the Bet Israel Synagogue in Karataş are the main synagogues in İzmir. The newly restored Yabets Synagogue in Bergama reopened its doors for use as a cultural centre with a ceremony in spring 2014. It is thought that the synagogue was built in the latter half of the 19th century. However, the building was abandoned in the 1940s after it was severely damaged by a fire that caused the roof to collapse. A monumental synagogue, the Synagogue of Sar- dis was the centre of Jewish religious life in Sardis in Ancient Lydia during the Late Roman period. The synagogue was located at the corner of the Roman Baths and the Gymnasium and converted part of this public building into a Jewish place of worship. Most of the current remains date from the 4th and 5th centuries. 242 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The City of Tolerance Mardin – Midyat Mardin is a vibrant region in the centre of Mesopo- tamia, between two powerful rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. It is a lucky city with a rich history. It is a multi-religious and multi-cultural province in the southeast of Türkiye, in the heart of Upper Mesopotamia. Mardin was the centre of the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch for hundreds of years. People of many faiths live in Mardin and carry the legacy of the people and cultures that came before them. Deyrulzafaran Monastery (Mor Hananyo or St Hananyo Monastery in Syriac) is one of the world's oldest and still active monasteries. It was built in the fourth century on the site of a 4,500-year-old pagan temple dedicated to heliolatry. After the Seljuk Turks, the Artuqid Principality chose Mardin as their capital because of its im- penetrable natural fortress. The influence of the Artuqids on local life can be seen in the fact that Artuqid buildings in Mardin far outnumber those of the Ottoman period. The ancient city of Dara, 30 kilometres from Mar- din's city centre, deserves a visit. The town was a significant settlement on the Silk Road. Founded in 506 AD and first named Anastasiopolis, the city gained religious, social and commercial impor- tance due to its location on the historical Silk Road. Over the centuries, the town has gathered commu- nities of different faiths such as Assyrian, Muslim, Yazidi and Christian. Architectural remains from different historical periods have been unearthed in the excavations carried out in the city so far. Built-in 1860, the Virgin Mary Church and the Syr- iac Catholic Patriarchate now serve as the Mardin Museum. The patriarchal throne and the preach- ing area are decorated in the church with elegant wood carvings. Built in 1895, the Patriarchate was transferred to the Ministry of Culture in 1988. In 1995, it was restored and opened to the public as a museum. Mor Behnam (Kırklar) Church was built in the fifth century. The church has three entrance doors with fine stonework mihrabs, 400-year-old wooden mi- hrab doors, 1500-year-old curtains printed with root paint, a bell tower house in its large court- yard, and a divan with examples of stone carving worked like lace. In 1170, the bones of the Forty Martyrs were brought to this church. Today the building serves as the Metropolitan Church of Mardin. Mor Gabriel Monastery (St Gabriel Monastery), also known as Deyrulumur Monastery, was found- ed in 397 AD on the Tur Abdin Plateau near the ancient city of Midyat. Noah's Ark Van Tuşba – Doğubeyazıt – Durupınar – Sağlıksuyu – Ağrı In almost all beliefs, it is mentioned that the ark was sitting on a rock at the top of a mountain. The legend of Mount Ararat, known as the last stop of Noah's Ark, has been known for thousands of years. The mountain's two peaks, with altitudes of 5,137 and 3,895 metres, were considered sacred by the Urartians (Urartu = Ararat; 13th-7th centuries BC), who gave the mountain its name. Accompa- nied by the dazzling views of Mount Ararat on Doğubeyazıt İshak Paşa Palace, one can follow in the footsteps of countless travellers searching for Noah's Ark throughout history and take part in this search. 243 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Monasteries of the Black Sea Maçka, Trabzon Sümela Monastery, located within the borders of Trabzon's Maçka district and built on a cliff in the Altındere Valley, is where nature, history and culture are integrated. Although it is estimated that the monastery was built in the 4th century, it is known that Alexios III (1349-1390) of Trabzon Komnenos built it. The monastery is also called the Virgin Mary among the people. The majestic complex, built 1,200 metres above sea level, has recently been restored. Not far from Sumela Mon- astery in Trabzon, Vazelon Monastery is one of the oldest monasteries in Anatolia. The monastery, also called "Zouvalon", is believed to have been built around 270 AD and dedicated to the Biblical Prophet John the Baptist. Sea, Sand and Sun Türkiye is one of the sunniest destinations in the world Türkiye's most famous beaches and holiday re- sorts are on the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts. Türkiye's 1,600 km long Mediterranean coastline is known as the Turquoise Coast. The Turkish Riv- iera is home to many of the world's best beaches and holiday resorts. The magnificent resorts wel- come millions of guests from all over the world, especially during the summer season. There are five-star resorts on the beaches of Lara and Kemer. Many glamour resorts, such as Kas, are also locat- ed on the Mediterranean coast, famous for diving and water sports. The Aegean region of Türkiye boasts breathtaking scenery, dazzling coastlines, sparkling beaches, pine forests and fragrant olive groves. The Aegean coast is home to many of Türkiye's most famous and stylish holiday resorts. Bodrum and Mar- maris, home to some of the vibrant nightlife of the summer months, are prime destinations for those chasing luxury and trends. There are also excellent holiday resorts around İzmir. Çeşme is one of the most touristic regions with its turquoise sea, gold- en sandy beaches, and blue flags. Alaçatı, a typical Aegean town located in Çeşme, is very pleasant and romantic with its narrow streets and stone houses. The Turquoise Coast, where the Mediterranean meets the Aegean, where lush green forests meet the famous azure waters of the sea and where modern culture merges with ancient civilisations, Türkiye's coastal regions offer beautiful land- scapes, dazzling coastlines, ancient cities, pristine beaches, pine forests and olive groves. It provides the perfect setting for a sunny holiday. 244 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Five Perfect Beaches for Water Sports Türkiye is the perfect place for those who love wa- ter sports. The beaches offer a great surfing expe- rience with its strong wind and countless water sports opportunities. Here are the five most suit- able beaches for water sports in Türkiye waiting for surf enthusiasts, windsurfers and kitesurfers: Alaçatı: Türkiye's number one destination for windsurfing. Alaçatı, a modest holiday resort near Çeşme and 75 km west of İzmir, is an attractive lit- tle residential area with cobbled streets lined with bougainvillaea and geraniums. It is also the best place for windsurfing in Türkiye. Windsurfing in Alaçatı means a strong wind blowing on the deep blue bays and beaches, giving you an unforgetta- ble experience. Akyaka: Akyaka in Ula, the paradise of kitesurf- ing enthusiasts, welcomes thousands of visitors yearly with its clear waters, lush nature and much more. This beautiful holiday resort is famous for kitesurfing. With its long beach, shallow water and short waves, it has all the features sought for kite- surfing and creates an exquisite environment for those who want to enjoy it. Sürmene: Sürmene is 40 km from the centre of Trabzon at the eastern end of the Black Sea coast. It is a location worth visiting for those who want to explore different places, kitesurf and dive, and in recent years it has become well known by those who prefer extreme sports. Kitesurfing on the wild waves of the Black Sea is an extraordinary experi- ence, and you need to be a good swimmer as the current is strong. Kuşadası: It is one of the best destinations for wa- ter sports. The most popular water sport is para- sailing, but many different water sports activities can also be tried during summer. Alanya: With excellent winds and sea, it is one of the best places in the country for windsurfing. There are chances to windsurf in many places, including Cleopatra Beach, Oba Beach and Galip- dere Beach. Five Most Beautiful Beaches of the Mediterranean Coastline The southern coast of Türkiye combines the tur- quoise blue of the Mediterranean with the stun- ning green of nature and the rich golden colour of the sand. The famous beaches of the Mediter- ranean coast welcome hundreds of thousands of guests every year. And for those who want to enjoy the sea and the sun, there are countless options in Antalya, Mersin and Hatay. Kaputaş Beach: Located in the westernmost part of Antalya near Kaş, Kaputaş Beach has been the subject of many tourism promotion posters over the years and has become a favourite of both lo- cal and foreign tourists. This is a place where only 245 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD small and cosy boutique hotels are located. The beach is reached by narrow stairs descending the main road between the tall cliffs on both sides of the V-shaped passage. Thanks to its picturesque beauty, it is worth a visit, no matter how remote. Cleopatra Beach: It is famous for its golden sands on the east coast of Antalya and is named after Cleopatra, the legendary queen of Ancient Egypt. This beach, about 2 km long, hosted Cleopatra and her lover Roman General Markus Antonius, on its unique sands. Cleopatra Beach is a great alterna- tive to warm up under the Mediterranean sun and cool off in the deep blue sea. Patara Beach: Close to Kas and Kalkan, Patara's beach stretches as far as the eye can see and is 20 km long. Located right next to the ancient city of Patara, Patara Beach offers a spectacular sunset on the dunes. With its shallow waters, soft sands and golden-coloured beach, Patara Beach is a unique destination for sun-seekers and Caretta Caretta sea turtles. Kızkalesi Beach: Blue flag Kızkalesi (Maiden's Cas- tle) Beach, located in Mersin, is among the most preferred beaches in the Mediterranean. Kızkalesi Beach allows families with children to enjoy the sea thanks to its shallow waters that do not deep- en even 50 m from the shore. For enthusiasts, there is also the option to rent a bicycle and explore the Maiden's Castle. Çevlik Beach: Located in Hatay, 14 km long Çevlik Beach is one of the longest beaches in Türkiye. Çevlik Beach is famous for its golden sands and shallow waters and is very close to the Titus Tun- nel, a Roman engineering marvel, the world's first human-made tunnel. Built by the Roman Emperor Titus to transport water from the mountain to the harbour, this tunnel is 130 m long and 15 m wide. There are many cafes and restaurants around Çev- lik Beach. Five Islands of Türkiye Türkiye has something different to offer every sea- son, but there a beauties to see especially in the summer months: vibrant bays, beaches, historical sites, delicious food and much more. The five is- lands that can be visited during the summer holi- day are: 246 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Bozcaada: It is located just at the exit of the Darda- nelles. The quiet island, which can be reached by taking the ferry from Geyikli, is worth seeing with its bays, beaches and narrow streets. Bozcaada has a stunning environment all year round. When you arrive on the island, the castle overlook- ing the harbour is a place worth visiting. You can stroll through the narrow streets between the co- lourful houses resembling a painting. Gökçeada: A quiet and peaceful island, Gökçeada is located just outside the Dardanelles. Ferries de- part from Çanakkale on the Asian side of the strait or Eceabat north of Kabatepe on the European side. Gökçeada is characterised by its relatively unspoilt and untouched bays and breathtaking scenery. Many places are worth visiting in the old Greek vil- lages: Kaleköy, Zeytinli, Tepeköy, Bademli and Der- eköy. Cunda Island: Cunda Island is located in the north of the Aegean Sea between Çanakkale and İzmir, near Ayvalık. The island is connected to the main- land by a bridge. The island offers visitors a colour- ful and unforgettable holiday experience by provid- ing a different beauty every season. The old Greek architecture, which stands out with old bay window houses and narrow streets, is fascinating. It is espe- cially famous for its excellent restaurants by the sea and delicious seafood. Büyükada: Words are not enough to describe the beauty of the island, which can be reached in less than an hour with ferry services departing from Eminönü, Kadıköy and Bostancı docks. The island welcomes thousands of guests annually with its peaceful environment, natural beauty, historical houses and much more. Sedir (Cedar) Island: Sedir Island, which has a fascinating beauty with its white sands, is located north of the Marmaris peninsula. The island, which attracts many visitors with the ancient city of Ke- drai and the world-famous Cleopatra Beach, which fascinates with its nature, is named after the cedar trees on the island. Blue Voyage Türkiye is home to many sailing routes where na- ture and history dance in harmony. Türkiye is a par- adise for a blue cruise with its wind-rich routes, bays offering a visual feast, sheltered anchorage areas, world-famous marinas, coastal towns and unique historical texture. Türkiye's seas welcome those who plan a blue cruise holiday with their boats and blue cruise enthusiasts who want to improve their seamanship skills. With its unique routes and mod- ern infrastructure, Türkiye has become one of the few countries in the world offering excellent oppor- tunities in unique destinations for blue cruise holi- days. In addition, international sailing races, which are organised by stopping sea traffic on the Bos- phorus, show how important Türkiye attaches to sailing sports and sailing enthusiasts. Türkiye has countless beautiful bays and beaches, especially on the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts. In addition to its natural beauty, Türkiye also makes a name for itself with sportive activities that can be done on land and at sea. Türkiye, which has harbour cit- 247 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ies that can be easily reached from international waters, offers rich alternatives full of adventure for guests of all ages. Turkish Gulets Magnificent masterpieces reflecting every shade of Turkish blue... Gulets, which attract attention with their wooden design and comfort, are nowadays produced in traditional style, especially in Bodrum and Güllük Bay shipyards. Gulets have been con- verted into motorised sailing boats over time. Gu- lets have an average length of 20-25 metres and con- sist of a wide arch and two main masts. The large aft area of the boat is ideal for meals, while the awning protects from the sun. The boat's spacious foredeck has plenty of room for strolling and sunbathing. These classic boats provide unrivalled comfort. Below the deck of an ordinary boat, there are four to six cabins with double and single berths. Boat building masters in different regions have unique designs for these beautiful gulets. Bodrum gulets stand out with their unique designs. Gulet-type boats stand out with their rounded aft section and low hull close to the sea. In other regions such as Marmaris and Fethiye, boatbuilders have, over time raised the aft section of the boat to create additional space inside the gulet. Cruises Cruises are the perfect way to discover Türkiye's 8,000 kilometres of coastline stretching from the Black Sea to the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas, its lasting historical monuments, natural beauty, beaches and delicious food, together with its hospi- table, friendly people. Cruising in Türkiye is a memorable way to discover many different civilisations, cultures and cities, from ancient civilisations and the Roman and Otto- man Empires. Türkiye has fantastic cruise destina- tions and ports to embark on a journey where East meets West. Cruise passengers are welcomed in Is- tanbul, Kuşadası, Marmaris, Çeşme, Bodrum, Boz- caada, İzmir, Antalya, Alanya, Dikili, Çanakkale, Sinop and Samsun. Health and Wellness Tourism Türkiye is one of the leaders in the health tourism sector. Türkiye is an important centre of excellence in healthcare services thanks to its service delivery system, service quality, treatments, hospitals, expe- rienced medical doctors and healthcare profession- als. Health Care Services Türkiye stands out globally thanks to its newly built city hospitals, numerous hospitals and high-quality healthcare services. Health Care Centres Increased cooperation between countries as part of the globalisation process, the ease and democrati- sation of travel today have expanded the scope of health tourism in the world, and new and impor- tant destinations have emerged. Türkiye proudly hosts many important health centres at world stan- dards. 248 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD City Hospitals and Medical Centres Turkish city hospitals are built to combine our country's best services in the health sector. These mega-health complexes stand out as central loca- tions providing world-class emergency, primary care and specialized services in all medical fields. History of Medicine and Traditional Medicine Many innovations and success stories in medicine have occured in our country from the past to the present. Since ancient times, many traditional and modern treatment options have been available in our country. Turkish Medical Doctors: World Class Achievements and Success Stories Turkish medical doctors have proudly represented Türkiye worldwide with their many achievements and medical discoveries. They continue to carry Türkiye's name to the top by performing successful surgeries, receiving prestigious awards, publishing groundbreaking articles and much more. Medical Treatments Türkiye has reached world standards in the field of medical treatment rapidly and efficiently thanks to the Health Transformation Programme over the last decade. Through the Health Transformation Programme, Turkish citizens and thousands of in- ternational patients come to Türkiye every year to benefit from the first-class health services available here. Hospitals operate under the national accreditation system and are inspected twice a year by the Min- istry of Health to ensure quality, safety and service standards. Many health facilities in Türkiye have ISO 9001 cer- tification for clinical services, JCI accreditation, etc. and offer five-star hotel comfort for their interna- tional guests. Most modern hospitals have signifi- cantly increased their new service capacities. Integrated health campuses are new generation health facilities operated under the supervision of the Ministry of Health with public and private part- nership model. These sustainable and environmen- tally friendly facilities have seismic isolation and smart operating systems. Patient rights, privacy and security are the top pri- orities of healthcare services in Türkiye. Türkiye is one of the world's leading healthcare hubs with its talented human resources, competitive prices, advanced technology and evidence-based service delivery at international standards. Health facilities in Türkiye operate with the world's highest technology. Türkiye has also invested heav- ily in health information technology in this process. As a result, Türkiye has become the country that uses health information systems, "metadata" and "artificial intelligence" in decision-making process- es. Wellness Tourism Hot Springs, Thermals and Spring Waters Türkiye's hot springs and spa facilities are of the highest standards and have an excellent reputation. Spas and thermal bath facilities allow visitors to relax, enjoy a wide range of specialised treatments, and rest physically and mentally while benefiting from therapeutic waters and other healing thera- pies. 249 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Since ancient times, natural hot springs have been sources for preventing and treating diseases, reduc- ing stress and improving quality of life. Nowadays, thermal waters are applied during treatment proce- dures in clinics and for preventive care, as well as in tourist facilities for healthy living and relaxation. Türkiye's thermal resources rank 7th in the world and 1st in Europe. Hundreds of thousands of inter- national patients and tourists visit Türkiye's unique thermal resorts yearly to get better and healthier. Most of these springs are located in the Aegean, Marmara Region and Central Anatolia. The qual- ity of the water delivered by these facilities is ap- proved and inspected by the Ministry of Health. Türkiye ranks 3rd in Europe (after Germany and Italy) in terms of utilisation of its natural thermal springs. It has more than 260 thermal resorts es- tablished in an area with more than 1,500 thermal springs of 20-1100 C and 2-500 l/sec. Insurance companies from many Northern European and Scandinavian countries send their patients to Tür- kiye for thermal treatments as part of the healing process. Turkish Baths Turkish baths have an important place in our country's health and wellness tourism with their healing waters and deep-rooted history in Anato- lia. The tradition of purification through cleaning is a therapeutic ritual that dates back to Ancient Rome and is an essential part of Turkish culture. The Turkish bath is not only a cleaning tool but also a social ritual. The Turkish bath is a hot steam hydro-therapy treatment that miraculously affects the mental and physical state of anyone who can enjoy its benefits to the fullest. • Reduces stress • Cleanses the skin • Eliminates toxins • Improves blood circulation • Cleans the respiratory tract Spa The word 'spa' means health with water, feeling re- juvenated by relaxing in hot mineral waters. The spa is the perfect antidote to the stress of modern life. Modern life is full of stress, unhealthy eating habits and sedentary lifestyles, which pose signifi- cant risks to our physical and mental health. Türkiye's Spa Wellness facilities can bring visitors one step closer to healthier living through innova- tive and integrative methods, whether in the city or a seaside resort. For example, Beach resort ho- tels offer access to seawater treatments. Sea water has many nutrients that help fight cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, cancer and skin prob- lems. Life energy is increased through meditation, yoga and breathing therapies, healthy eating and emo- tional wellbeing. All these practices, which are es- sential to physical and emotional renewal, are of great importance for health seekers considering an alternative holiday. Spa wellness centres in Istanbul, Antalya, İzmir and Bodrum offer an experience surrounded by natural beauty, historical culture and social facili- ties, as well as luxurious and personalised accom- modation and gastronomy. 250 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Mediterranean Diet The Mediterranean diet is considered one of the healthiest diets in the world. The most important feature of the Mediterranean diet, the importance of which has been recognised in terms of the health benefits of food diversity, is its diversity and high nutritional quality. This diversity in the daily diet is always available throughout Türkiye. Turkish cuisine is healthy and seasonal, with most dishes made from the abundance of fresh products available. The flavours and spices that go into Turkish cui- sine are delicious and have antioxidant properties; they work to lower cholesterol, eliminate toxins and strengthen immunity. The defining characteristic of Mediterranean cui- sine is that it uses local fresh ingredients, which results in dishes that are both substantial and not too heavy and have great flavours. In addition, the fertile environment produces excellent vegetable products, quality olive oil, and various spices. All this contributes to a healthy and varied diet. Spices and olive oil vary from town to town. Sports Tourism Türkiye offers a unique sporting experience full of fascinating opportunities for professional and ama- teur players worldwide. With compact and luxuri- ous sports complexes and training grounds, Türki- ye offers athletes an unforgettable experience with its mild climate, turquoise seas, lush green moun- tains, luxury hotels, professional service and most importantly, Turkish hospitality. Throughout the year, many professional athletes and professional teams choose to come to Türkiye to train and im- prove their personal development. Trekking and Hiking Türkiye has a wide variety of trails for daily and long nature walks. There are many trails through- out the country suitable for all levels. Türkiye offers a paradise away from stress, allowing you to experi- ence different emotions and promising time travel in the heart of nature. The infinity of the deep blue sea and the unique architecture and culture of Ana- tolia can be experienced during the walks made on the paths extending from the green valleys to the plateaus. Windsurfing and Kitesurfing Türkiye offers surfing enthusiasts a dreamlike expe- rience in the deep blue seas with the unique dance 251 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD of wind and waves. Alaçatı, the most popular holi- day paradise of recent years, stands out as an ideal spot for those who want to experience internation- al surfing. There are many facilities where amateur and professional athletes can find the equipment and instructors they are looking for. Aegean and Mediterranean waters have great wind routes for surfing. Scubadiving Known as the meeting point of East and West, Tür- kiye is a diving destination that promises you un- forgettable experiences. You can dive from boats, explore sunken ships, night dive, explore caves and wall dive in mysterious crevices. Türkiye's underwater world is interesting and ex- citing. Türkiye has many different diving destina- tions, allowing you to choose according to what you want to explore. The best time to dive in Tür- kiye is between June and September when the wa- ter temperature is above 21°C, the sea bed is rising again, and visibility is between 20-40 metres. There are many scuba diving centres in Türkiye. While enjoying the sun in Türkiye, you can ob- serve thousands of species of creatures under the sea and coral reefs in clear waters and dive into unique, beautiful bays with rich underwater habi- tats. The water temperature is more than ideal for long-term diving for both amateur and profes- sional divers. Along almost the entire coastline of Türkiye, professional diving schools organise div- ing tours to make your holiday unforgettable. Our country offers exciting experience opportunities for professional divers. Cycling in History and Nature Türkiye has fascinating lands to explore with its deep and long history, forming an unbroken chain of civilisations from the Neolithic Age to the modern world. It is a magical place with the ability to transform a humble bicycle into a "time machine". The opportunity to cycle in this unique land that bridges the West and the East should not be missed. New things are discovered with each pedal turned here: A marvellous landscape and thousands of years of civilisation, warm hospital- ity and being welcomed with open arms as one of the family. The land of Türkiye is a dance of compelling his- tory and marvellous beauty. Cycling is one of the ideal ways of keeping up with this dance. While pedalling in the modern world in Türkiye, one can go back in time and follow in the footsteps of Neo- lithic man. The Taurus Mountains in Antalya, which run par- allel to the Mediterranean coast, are a paradise for mountain bikers as they allow climbing in a unique nature. Ancient cities hidden among dense cedar and pine forests can also be discovered here. Türkiye's west coast is a wonderland. İzmir and Mugla offer unique and contrasting regions to experience on a bike. Here you will find all the at- tractive natural and historical assets that can be explored on two wheels: Historic villages, ancient cities on the UNESCO World Heritage List, Cit- 252 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD First World War I Themed Underwater Park is in Çanakkale The mysteries of the warships, including the Bri- tish Royal Battleship 'HMS Majestic', which was sunk off Seddülbahir Castle in the 1st World War in the Historical Gallipoli Peninsula where the Çanakkale Wars took place, were opened to diving enthusiasts. You've Never Seen War From This Angle The first diving point in the Gallipoli Historical Underwater Park, where the struggle under the sea in the Çanakkale Victory, which has been told on land until today, will also be revealed, is the wreck of the 120-metre-long British battleship 'HMS Ma- jestic' sunk by the German U-21 submarine off Sed- dülbahir on May 27, 1915. At a depth of 24 metres, unexploded artillery shells and gunpowder on the sunken ship attract the attention of diving lovers. The sunken vessels Andrea Massena, named after one of the important marshals of the French Revolution, and Saghalien, which went on its last mission with him, are waiting for the visits of diving lovers at dept- hs of 5-7 metres in Ertuğrul Bay. The ships, which still preserve their form, create the imp- ression that time has stopped under the sea. Unique History Under Water In the Gallipoli Historical Underwater Park, where the Tekke Bay (W Beach) wrecks, Arıburnu barges, Küçük Kemikli barges, Arıburnu Lighter, Lundy wreck, HMS Louis, S.S Milo and Tuzla wrecks can also be seen, the Submarine Mania Net, which stopped dozens of submarines during the Çanakkale Wars at a depth of 10 metres in Akbaş Bay, draws attention as a unique historical beauty that underwater photographers must see. Spectacular view with hundreds of sea creatures The British ship HMS Triumph, which sank with 73 crew members on May 25, 1915, is also waiting for its visitors at a depth of 70 metres in Kabatepe as a mausoleum. The Bebek rocks, which hold hundreds of species together and are the first place where Halley's comet was seen in history, are also located within the borders of the Gallipoli Historical Underwater Park. Offering hundreds of colours and species to divers who want to experience current diving, Bebek rocks are a candidate to become a crucial point for diving lovers worldwide. DID YOU KNOW? 253 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD taslow (Slow City) towns, dozens of ancient Ionian cities, marvellous beaches and delicious Aegean food accompanied by local wine. Who wouldn't want to cycle among the fairy chim- neys of the mesmerising Cappadocia? Shaped by the eruption of volcanoes thousands of years ago, the deep valleys form an extraordinary landscape that has deservedly earned its place on the UNES- CO World Heritage List. Cappadocia is not only a fantastic mountain biking destination but also a great cycling destination with gravel and road cy- cling routes. The spectacular scenery of evergreen, forested mountains along Türkiye's long Black Sea coast- line is well worth the effort required to cycle these steep routes. Also, while chatting with the hospi- table people of the Black Sea, a freshly brewed cup of tea will be their treat. Istanbul is a melting pot of cultures and religions and a bustling city spanning two continents. Cy- cling in Istanbul offers a wide range of opportuni- ties, from a breathtaking tour of the magnificent monuments of the historical peninsula to a ro- mantic day trip on the islands. Whether a one-day trip or a visit between business meetings, cycling is one of the most enjoyable ways to explore this beautiful and vast city. Istanbul is full of historical and natural beauties for explorers on two wheels. You can cycle along the Bosphorus shores separat- ing Europe from Asia, from the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea in the north, with its pearl-like wooden mansions, pink and purple redbud trees along the shore, and, if you are lucky, dolphins that will accompany you from the sea. The website gocyclingturkiye.com, which intro- duces Türkiye's cycling routes with ready-made infrastructure, was launched in 2021. On the web- site, where Bikemap map infrastructure is used, cyclists coming to our country are offered unique alternatives within the scope of the road bike, mountain bike and electric bike routes. Some of these routes are: 254 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD EuroVelo 8: Mediterranean Route Cultural heritage, ancient civilisations, turquoise waters, natural parks, local flavours and Turkish hospitality... The EuroVelo 8 route, also known as the Mediter- ranean Route, is a 5,900-kilometre route passing through 11 countries, including Türkiye. Approxi- mately 500 kilometres of the total route passes through İzmir, the third largest city in Türkiye. EuroVelo 13: Iron Curtain Trail EuroVelo is a project that provides the opportuni- ty to travel by bicycle in Europe with its European bicycle path network and 16 separate long road routes. The Iron Curtain Cycling Route, the EuroV- elo route number 13, extends to the Black Sea. Iron Curtain Cycling Route, also known as EuroVelo, is a project started in 1995 under the supervision of the European Cycling Federation. A short but essential part of the EuroVelo 13 Iron Curtain Route passes through Türkiye. Presidential Cycling Tour of Türkiye The Presidential Cycling Tour of Türkiye is organ- ised under the auspices of the Presidency of the Re- public of Türkiye, in cooperation with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the Turkish Tourism Promotion and Development Agency (TGA), and is carried out on a unique route equipped with natural and historical beauties. The Presidential Cycling Tour of Türkiye (Tour of Türkiye) was first organised in 1963 under the name "Marmara Tour" as the only intercontinental cycling tour in the world. In 2021, the Tour, which was run on a different route, started from Cappadocia on April 11 and ended in Kuşadası on April 18. Teams from 12 different countries participated in the or- ganisation, which was broadcast on Eurosport for three hours daily. Teams and athletes from Belgium, Israel, Italy, Spain, France, Russia, the United States, Norway, the Netherlands, Kazakhstan, Switzerland and Ma- laysia covered 1,347 kilometres and passed through historical locations such as Konya, Beyşehir, Al- anya, Kemer, Göğübeli Summit, Fethiye, Marmaris, Turgutreis, Bodrum and Kuşadası. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Repub- lic of Türkiye issues "Bicycle Friendly Accommoda- tion Facility Certificate" and "Safe Tourism Certifi- cate" within the scope of sustainable tourism. These measures, along with other hygiene regulations, ensured that this year's cycling tour could go ahead while the safety and health of the participants was guaranteed. Bicycle Friendly Accommodation Facilities In order to promote sustainable tourism and attract active travellers, Türkiye has introduced a "Bicycle Friendly Accommodation Facilities Certificate" to encourage bicycle tourism. The certificate is award- ed to hotels and other types of accommodation that meet various criteria, such as providing secure parking for bicycles, employing staff knowledge- able about local cycle routes, and providing a bicy- cle cleaning and repair area. So far, 17 facilities have received this certificate and are "bicycle friendly" ac- commodation facilities. Golf Golf courses in Türkiye are designed by world- renowned golf course architects. You can visit golf 255 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD centres where diversity and routes will give you a unique experience. Especially the golf centres in the Antalya region promise to offer you an exclu- sive golf experience. There are golf courses of high quality under PGA Standards, and provide the best price-performance balance. International Tournaments in Türkiye Belek welcomes the world's best golfers all year round with an average temperature of 19°C and over 300 days (almost throughout the year) of sunny weather. With 17 golf courses and luxury ho- tels close to them, Belek allows golf enthusiasts to discover new golf courses at any time of the year. The golf courses are located in the same area as the airport and hotels, allowing golf enthusiasts to play golf in different classes without wasting time. Thanks to these features, Belek was recognised as the "Best Golf Region of the Year" by the Interna- tional Association of Golf Tour Operators in 2008. IGTM 2011 International Golf Travel Market was or- ganised by Belek Tourism Investors Union in Belek on 14-17 November 2011. Skiing Located 36 km from the city centre, southwest of Bursa, Uludağ is one of Türkiye's most important winter sports centres. Uludağ, declared a National Park in 1961 with its rich vegetation and differ- ent animal species, attracts visitors all year round. Trekking and camping experiences are also very popular on the mountain, especially in summer. In ancient times, the name of Uludağ was Olym- pos Misios, which means "Always Shining" and ac- cording to mythology, this hill was where the gods watched the Trojan War. Uludağ is the pulse of win- ter tourism, and development works are planned to increase the accommodation capacity and further expand the ski facilities. Hosting numerous festi- vals and organisations, Uludağ also has very suit- able trails for heli-skiing, snowboarding, ice skating and snow biking, thanks to its central location. Erciyes Ski Centre is located in Kayseri on Mount Erciyes (3,916 m), the highest peak in the Central Anatolia Region. Mount Erciyes can be seen as a young extinct volcanic mountain. In addition, Er- ciyes is one of the most essential natural riches of the region, which enlivens the environment with its many volcano cones. The past glaciers formed on Mount Erciyes have created comprehensive and deep ice troughs in the high parts of the mountain through erosion. There is a glacier in the wide sec- tion of one of these eight ice beds located at the mountain's high point. External influences formed a crater, and several steep mounds appeared. Just below Mount Erciyes' summit is a cave between the rock columns. Byzantine monks once used this cave for religious ceremonies. On the north- ern slope is a 700-metre-high mountain glacier, and on the southern slope, at an altitude of 2,100 - 2,900 metres, is the Tekir Plateau, home to a win- ter sports centre. The walk from the chair lift to the Erciyes Çobanini Campsite takes approximately 2.5 - 3 hours in winter. The climb from Çobanini to the Mola Stone at the spring head of Şeytan Creek takes about an hour by cross-country skiing. From here, it may take two to three hours to reach the summit of the minor hill. It is essential to wear a helmet while walking to avoid avalanche danger in winter and in- juries caused by falling rocks in spring. Due to its geographical location, Erciyes is the most central ski resort in the world and is only a three to four-hour flight from many parts of the world. 256 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD There are approximately 15 daily flights between Istanbul and Kayseri. The average flight distance of one hour between Erciyes and Istanbul makes Erci- yes Ski Resort very attractive for both local and for- eign tourists. Erciyes Ski Resort is 25 minutes from Kayseri Airport, 20 minutes from Kayseri city cen- tre and one hour from Cappadocia. A two-lane high- way connects Kayseri city centre and Erciyes. The ski centre has a double chairlift equipped with the latest technology under international standards, with a capacity of approximately 26,750 people per hour, which can be dismantled and removed at high speed. On the chairlifts, you can have the chance to observe the endemic vegetation accompanied by the incredible view of Mount Erciyes. A comfort- able journey can be made with the cable cars called "Gondola" at Hacılar and Tekir Kapı entrances. You can enjoy the surroundings with warm drinks in the facilities located here. Palandöken is the longest ski slope in Türkiye. The ski centre is known as the best mountain in Türkiye for experienced skiers due to the "powder snow" that allows easy skiing, the steepness of the slopes and the length of the piste. The most challenging piste in the centre is the Dragon Piste at the back of the mountain. The lifts and pistes at Ejder are sometimes closed due to fog and avalanche risks. The ski season starts in November and continues until June. The number of lifts on the slopes was increased between 2008 and 2010. There are cur- rently a total of eight lifts in the ski centre. Hosting the 25th World Universities Winter Games in 2011, Palandöken Ski Resort continues to be one of the attractions of winter tourism in Türkiye and the world, with its distance of four kilometres from Erzurum. The altitude of the highest point of the ski centre is 3,174 metres. In addition to the gondola lift, five chairlifts of different gradients serve all 22 pistes on 460 hectares of skiable area. Ejder and Kapıkaya are the longest pistes in Pa- landöken. These pistes are of Olympic size and are suitable for slalom and giant slalom disciplines. The total length of the pistes is 28 km, the longest of which is 12 km and has an altitude difference of 1,100 metres. Kartalkaya Ski Centre is located in the Köroğlu Mountains in Bolu. Kartalkaya's groomed ski slopes are well suited for ski disciplines such as al- pine skiing, touring, and cross-country skiing. The ski season in Kartalkaya lasts about four months, from December to the end of March. Kartalkaya is a three-hour drive from Ankara Esenboğa Airport and an average of four hours from the airports in Istanbul. All three airports mentioned above are international airports. Therefore, it is possible to reach Kartalkaya from Istanbul and Ankara by dai- ly or overnight tour or private car. Sarıkamış Ski Resort is located at an altitude of 2,100 - 2,634 metres on Çamurlu Mountain, 55 km southwest of Kars in the Eastern Anatolia Region. The facility has two mechanical pistes. The first one has a capacity of 1,800 persons per hour and is 1,435 metres long; the second one has a capacity of 800 persons per hour and is 2,250 metres long. There are a total of seven ski slopes in service in Sarıkamış. The ski slope is located 60 km southwest of Kars city centre, 50 km from Kars Harakani Airport and can also be reached from Erzurum Airport. In ad- dition, there are bus services from both airports to the ski centre. The ski slopes in Sarıkamış are scattered in regions at different distances from the city centre. These slopes are located in Cıbıltepe (2.200-2.634 m) in the southeast, Mount Süphan (2.200 - 2.900 m) in the west and Ağbaba (2.200 - 2.810 m) in the east. The five ski slopes of Sarkamış Ski Centre, which pass through magnificent pine trees, are 12 km long. The snow here can make ski- ing difficult with its crystalline structure. The aver- age snow thickness in Sarıkamış Ski Resort, which has the same snow quality as the world-famous Alpine Mountains, reaches 1.5 metres. The season runs from December 20 to March 20. Sarıkamış has a continental climate dominated by southwest winds. 257 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Football Türkiye is a country of football fans. Hosting a wide range of international football organisations, the spectacular atmosphere during the matches played in Türkiye is known worldwide. Our country is a camping paradise where all teams can easily find opponents, train and stay in the most luxurious facilities. Hosting many UEFA youth tournaments and particular matches of international teams, the qualified staff in these facilities offer you a differ- ent experience from a standard hotel. In addition, in many parts of the countryside, campsites are located far from city centres, so transport is not a problem in Türkiye. Istanbul hosted the UEFA Su- per Cup in 2019 and will host the UEFA Champions League Final in 2023. Türkiye continuously demon- strates its passion and operational capabilities to the world through regular investments in football. Locations such as Antalya, Erzurum, Trabzon, Is- tanbul, Bolu, Burdur, Isparta and Kocaeli attract football-oriented tourism with accommodation facilities, football training grounds and match grounds. The weather is cool in summer, and there are favourable humidity, temperature and oxygen conditions. For seasonal training camps and fitness training during the winter, it is essential to choose locations with mild weather, favourable humidity and temperature and where rain and wind factors are less dominant. CULTURAL LIFE — LITERATURE — FINE ARTS — TRADITIONAL ARTS — ARCHITECTURAL CULTURAL HERITAGE IN TÜRKİYE — MUSIC — OPERA AND BALLET — THEATRE — CINEMA — TURKISH TV SERIES — FESTIVALS — FAIRS — MUSEOLOGY — PUBLISHING AND LIBRARIES — NATION'S LIBRARY OF THE PRESIDENCY 260 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD E pics are the first and most essential products of the oral literature tradition in Turks. The main ones are the "Alp Er Tonga Epic", which tells about the defeat of the Iranian armies by the Saka ruler Alp Er Tonga, who is thought to have lived in the 7th century, the "Bozkurt Epic", which tells about the descent of the Gokturks from a she- wolf, and the "Ergenekon Epic", which tells about the exit of the Gokturks from Ergenekon by melting an iron mountain. The first known written works of Turkish literature are the "Orkhon Inscriptions" written in the 8th century with the Gokturk alpha- bet. The most critical inscriptions, whose Turkish parts have been translated into various languages, are erected in the names of Tonyukuk, Kül Tigin and Bilge Kagan. The inscriptions are important in showing that the Turks had a processed written language and a rich expression at that time. Acceptance of Islam and Turkish Literature "Kutadgu Bilig" (11th century), written by Yusuf Has Hacib in pure Turkish, and the first work of Turk- ish literature, contains opinions and advice on sub- jects such as religion, state, politics and education. Another of the essential pieces of Turkish literature under the influence of Islamic culture is "Dîvânü Lügati't Türk (Dictionary of Turkish Languages)" written by Kaşgarlı Mahmut. Both works were writ- ten in Hakaniye Turkish, one of the southwestern dialects. Another development in Turkish, which will direct- ly affect literature, is seen in the southwestern dia- lect spoken by Oghuz-Turkmen tribes from the 11th century onwards. Those of these Turkic tribes who settled in a region of Iran and Azerbaijan formed Azeri Turkish, and those who settled in Anatolia formed Türkiye Turkish. Divan Literature Divan literature, which emerged during the Otto- man period, is an elite literary genre that developed along the lines of Arabic and Persian works of lit- erature. Dehhanî, Kadı Burhaneddin, Nesimî and Ahmedî were the first masters of divan poetry in the 14th Fuzulî LITERATURE 262 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD century. In the 15th century, all the features of Per- sian poetry began to be transferred to Turkish di- van poetry. In non-religious divan poetry, Şeyhi, Ahmet Paşa, Necati and Süleyman Çelebi, the au- thor of the most original work on religious themes, Mawlid are some of the famous poets of this pe- riod. In the 16th century, many artists living in Central Anatolia, the Balkans and the Middle East began to gather in Istanbul. Fuzulî, the famous poet of the impressive poems in Turkish divan poetry; Bakî, known for his fluent language and softness of expression; and Zatî, Nef'î and Ruhî-i Bağdadi are prominent poets of this period. Nef'î, known as the 17th century poet of ode and satire, has a strong technique, heavy language and a brave discourse. Nabî, who came to the fore in the 18th century, wrote didactic poems and criticised the state, soci- ety and social life in his works. Divan poetry of the 18th century, identified with Nedim, tended to indigenisation in this period. Folk poetry influenced divan poetry, simplified its language to a certain extent and helped to localise the subjects dealt with. In fact, with Nedim, the understanding of "splendid poetry" was replaced by "fine and sensitive poetry". The epoch opened by Nedim continued with Şeyh Galib at the end of the century. Most of the prose writers of Divan literature pre- ferred a straightforward narrative in their works for the public and an ornate and elaborate narra- tive in their works for the intellectuals. However, by finding common ground, a written language that differs from spoken language but does not refer to complex and artistic expression has de- veloped over time. Âşık Paşa, Âşık Çelebi, Evliya Çelebi, Nâima, Koçi bey and Mercimek Ahmed are important writers who wrote prose works. Evliya Çelebi's "Seyahatname", which reflects various as- pects of 17th-century social life, is a valuable source regarding geography, history, ethnography, lan- guage and sociology. Folk Literature Chansonettes, folk songs, epics and fairy tales are examples of anonymous folk literature. Further- more, anonymous folk literature includes folk and meddah stories, Karagöz shadow plays, and tradi- tional improvised theatre. In prose writing, "Dede Korkut Stories", which was compiled from folk speech in the 14th century and written down, is one of the most important works in the history of Turkish literature. The work, which consists of 12 stories, bears traces of the Turks' en- trance under the influence of Islam. "Sufi Folk Literature", a religious form of folk litera- ture, began in the 12th century with Ahmad Yasawi. The understanding of Sufism, which was trans- ferred to Anatolia under the leadership of Ahmad Yasawi, matured with the poems of the famous folk poet Yunus Emre, who is claimed to have lived in the late 13th century. His rebellion against the unfair events of his time, his tolerant and sincere approach to religious issues, and his use of simple and honest language in expressing his thoughts have broadly impacted society. Yunus Emre is regarded as the greatest artist of Anatolian Turkish because of his skilful use of the Turkish language. In the same century, folk humour based on hope and optimism became a second source of art. Nasreddin Hodja, who is considered to have lived in the 13th century, is regarded as the greatest expo- Şeref Taşlıova and Murat Çobanoğlu 263 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD nent of folk humour not only in his own time, but even today. In the second half of the 16th century, the Shiite-Ba- tiniyyah belief also manifested itself in the field of literature. Alevi-Bektashi literature, formed in line with this belief, began to develop separately from Sufi folk poetry. Pir Sultan Abdal, one of the most influential representatives of this literature, dealt with subjects such as human love, brotherhood, equality, peace, and the unity of God and humanity in his poems. Another form of folk literature that deals with non- religious topics, "Minstrel Literature," emerged in the early 16th century. The epic masters of minstrel literature, in which words and music complement each other, such as Köroğlu and Karacaoğlan, were raised in this period. Köroğlu, who became the sym- bol of a courageous rebellion against social failures, described subjects such as heroism, valour, love of nature and love in his poems in an enthusiastic language. Karacaoğlan, who strictly adheres to the tradition of folk literature, is the most potent name for love poems. Âşık Şenlik (Çıldırlı), Gevherî, Er- zurumlu Emrah, Sümmanî, Seyranî and Dadaloğlu are other important poets of "Minstrel Literature". Today, folk literature continues its centuries-old tradition by feeding on new subjects and current problems. Aşık Veysel (Şatıroğlu), Dursun Cevlanî, Davut Sulari, Sabit Ataman (Âşık Müdamî), Daimî, Mahsunî Şerif, Neşet Ertaş, Şeref Taşlıova, Murat Çobanoğlu, Muhlis Akarsu, Yaşar Reyhani and Musa Eroğlu are some of the recent folk minstrels. Veering towards the West Divan literature was replaced by Tanzimat litera- ture, which developed under the influence of the West in the 19th century. During this period, new literary genres such as novels, plays, short stories, articles, memoirs, essays, and criticism began to emerge, which had not been seen in divan litera- ture. In this period, journalism and literature were intertwined. In the same period, Şinasi wrote the first Turkish theatrical work in the Western sense, "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Wedding of a Poet), and nu- merous artists, including Namk Kemal, Ziya Pasha, Şemsettin Sami, and Recaizade Mahmut Ekrem, created works in new literary forms. In 1891, the "New Literature" movement (Edebiyat-ı Cedide), initiated by the artists gathered around the magazine "Servet-i Fünun", always prioritised art. 'Majnun's Encounter with the Seven-Headed Giant' scene from Karagöz-Hacivat puppet show Karacaoğlan 264 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The biggest innovation in this period was realised in the short story and novel field. The novels "Mai ve Siyah" (Blue and Black) and "Aşk-ı Memnu" (Forbid- den Love) by Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil, recognised as the first and real master of Turkish novel writing, and Mehmet Rauf's novel "Eylül" (September) the earli- est example of the psychological novel, are among the most notable works of this period. National Literature Movement In 1911, Ali Canip Yöntem, Ömer Seyfettin and Ziya Gökalp published the magazine "Genç Kalemler" (Young Pens), and the movement was soon adopted by artists defending different artistic approaches. In the works written in pure Turkish, the problems of the country were expressed, and the aim was to reveal national values. Especially in the field of short stories and novels, Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, Halide Edip Adıvar, Reşat Nuri Güntekin and Re- fik Halit Karay gave the most successful examples of this movement. In this period, poets with differ- ent world views and understanding of poetry were also trained. Mehmet Akif Ersoy, the author of the National Anthem, who wrote his poems in aruz prosody instead of syllabic prosody, which was the main feature of the movement, turned to social is- sues with a realist attitude; Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, who was considered Ottomanist and traditionalist, developed neo-classical poetry; Ahmet Haşim, who was outside the dominant approaches, defended "pure poetry" with an impressionist and symbolist approach. Republican Period The first examples of literature orientated towards socialist realism began to be produced in the 1930s. The novels "Green Night" (1928) and "Yaprak Dökü- mü" (1930) by Reşat Nuri Güntekin, "Dokuzuncu Hariciye Koğuşu" (1930) and "Fatih Harbiye" (1931) by Peyami Safa, "Yaban" (1932) by Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, and "Sinekli Bakkal" (1936) by Halide Edip Adıvar were written in line with this understanding. Aka Gündüz's "Dikmen Yıldızı" (1928), Mahmut Yesari's "Çulluk" (1927) and Osman Cemal Kaygılı's "Çingeneler" (1939) contain hard re- alistic lines and local colours as well as psychologi- cal analyses. Memduh Şevket Esendal's "Ayaşlı ve Kiracıları" (1934) portrays life in Ankara in the early years of the Republic, while Abdülhak Şinasi Hisar's "Fahim Bey ve Biz" (1941) presents life in the man- ors and mansions in the last period of the Empire in Istanbul with an analytical narrative that includes rich details. In the field of poetry, Nazım Hikmet Ran was the first representative of a new movement called "free verse", which departed from the versificationist ap- proach. Instead, he emphasised "essence" in poetry and developed an original form. On the other hand, Ziya Osman Saba, Ahmet Ham- di Tanpınar, Ahmet Muhip Dranas and Kemalettin Kamu produced poetry based on the syllabic pros- ody but prioritising poetry. Orhan Şaik Gökyay, known for his research on the history of Turkish lit- erature, used syllabic prosody in his poems, adopt- ing the style of saz and tekke (dervish lodge) poetry. In the second half of the 1930s, poets such as Cahit Namık Kemal Mehmet Akif Ersoy 265 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Sıtkı Tarancı, Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca and İlhan Berk tried to develop an independent poetic attitude; Necip Fazıl Kısakürek poeticised psychological and surreal elements in a striking and different lan- guage. Anatolian realities occasionally fueled Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel's poetry. In the 1940s, Sait Faik Abasıyanık brought a new un- derstanding of the short story to literature with his sensitivity towards the world of the intellectual in- dividual and the little man rather than social prob- lems. Sabahattin Ali, with his novels “İçimizdeki Şeytan” (The Devil Inside Us) and “Kürk Mantolu Madonna” (The Madonna with the Fur Coat), dealt with the effects of cultural change on individuals in different segments of society at the level of psycho- logical analyses. Other writers of the period such as Tarık Buğra, Oktay Akbal, Cevat Şakir Kabaağaçlı, Haldun Taner, Cevdet Kudret Solok and Samim Kocagöz also produced realistic works. In the field of poetry, the ""Garip Movement" (First New Move- ment), which emerged as a reaction not only to the old poetry but also to the poetry of Nazım Hikmet Ran, left its mark on the period. The movement, named after the book "Garip" (1941), in which Orhan Veli Kanık, Oktay Rıfat Horozcu and Melih Cevdet Anday published poems without rhyme and pros- ody, that dealt with daily life and individual issues with the simplicity of the spoken language, spread in a short time and found many young followers. It also influenced the famous poets of the period such as Necati Cumalı, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu and Be- hçet Necatigil. In the second half of the 1940s, Cey- hun Atuf Kansu, Cahit Külebi, Necati Cumalı and Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu developed narrative poetry based on idiomatic features that prioritised social sensitivity. From the 1950s onwards, writers turned more to- wards the realities of the village. In Mahmut Makal's "Bizim Köy" (Our Village) (1950) and Fakir Baykurt's "Yılanların Öcü" (Revenge of the Snakes) (1959), they provided a wide opening to Turkish literature with their observations on the way of life of rural people. One of the writers who brought a different dimension to rural literature in the 1950s was Yaşar Kemal. His novel "Ince Memed", the first volume of which was published in 1955 and which deals with the difficulties faced and the attitudes developed by the people of the Çukurova region in an epic language, bears the first traces of the approach and narrative forms that Yaşar Kemal would develop in the following years. Kemal Tahir, who made a name for himself in the field of literature with his short story book "Göl İnsanları" (Lake People) published Reşat Nuri Güntekin Yaşar Kemal Necip Fazıl Kısakürek 266 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD in 1955, is also one of the writers who focused on the village phenomenon and the problems of rural life. The works of writers such as Demir Özlü, Ferit Edgü, Yusuf Atılgan and Nezihe Meriç, who started writing between 1950 and 1960, are dominated by different and individual searches. Since 1955, Aziz Nesin has published works in prac- tically every genre of literature, dealing with soci- ety's failings in a cynical and satirical manner. The author, who received the "Golden Palm" twice in the Italian humorous writing prize in 1946 and 1957 for his first works, rose to international prominence, and his books were translated into various languag- es. Muzaffer Izgü and Rıfat Ilgaz, best known for his work "Hababam Sınıfı," were other well-known names in the world of humour literature. Easy-to-understand spoken language had been re- placed in the realm of poetry by a narrative based on the unique implications of words inside the vi- sual order set by the poet. Cemal Süreya, Edip Can- sever, Turgut Uyar, Ece Ayhan, İlhan Berk, Özdemir Asaf and Kemal Özer are among the representatives of this movement, which is called "Second New". Sezai Karakoç, who established a unique poetic language in the same period, treated existential and metaphysical themes with a mystical attitude in his works. The understanding of poetry exemplified in the works of these poets showed different tenden- cies in the following years. In the post-1960 period, social themes gained weight, and the search for new techniques and forms pioneered the enrichment of the Turkish language. "Arif Nihat Asya, also known as the "flag poet", Yavuz Bülent Bakiler, Osman Attila, Ayhan İnal, Feyzi Halıcı, Ataol Behramoğlu, İsmet Özel and Hilmi Yavuz, who started writing poetry in the early 1960s, were influenced by the general trend in their later poetry. In short stories and novels, the debates around the rural-urban environment be- came widespread in this period with theses on so- cial structure. Nevertheless, writers such as Orhan Kemal, Yaşar Kemal and Kemal Tahir continued to produce works in their lines in the 1960s. Authors such as Samim Kocagöz, Attila İlhan, Tarık Buğra, Hasan İzzettin Dinamo and İlhan Selçuk mostly fo- cused on recent history in their works. In the 1970s, the direct communication of thought and sensitivity increased the orientation towards the current in all genres of literature. In this period, writers such as Çetin Altan, Pınar Kür, Tomris Uyar, Sevgi Soysal, Tezer Özlü, Selim İleri, Bekir Yıldız and Ayla Kutlu produced works that reveal various aspects of social change and are mainly psychologi- cal analyses. In the 1980s, as society moved away from politics, the interest of intellectuals turned more towards culture and art. In the same years, Mustafa Necati Sepetçioğlu found a large readership among the new generation with his works on Turkish his- tory. In one of his serial books, Sepetçioğlu dis- cusses Turkish history from the Manzikert Victory (1071) through the Ottoman Empire's period of de- cline, and in his other novels, he discusses societal change and its implications in today's Türkiye. Sepetçioğlu's theatre play "Büyük Otmarlar" was se- lected as the best play at the European Interuniver- sity Theatre Festival. The author's works have been translated into many languages and published in foreign countries. In 1999, Orhan Pamuk was included in the list of "The 21 Best Writers of the 21st Century" published in the British newspaper The Observer, and was awarded the 2003 "IMPAC Dublin Literature Prize" Rıfat Ilgaz 267 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD for his novel "Benim Adım Kırmızı" (My Name is Red), which was published in 24 languages, and re- ceived the "Nobel Prize for Literature" in 2006. Turgut Özakman, who is mostly known in Türkiye and the world as a playwright, was awarded the "Art Institution Honorary Award" for his historical novel "Şu Çılgın Türkler" (Those Crazy Turks), which is about the Turkish National Struggle and was the best-selling and most read book of 2005. Turkish literature is rich in literary works such as epic, poetry, novel, story, theatre, fable, essays, jokes, articles, criticism, conversation, memoir and biog- raphy. To literary historian Osman Horata, "Turkish Literature is like a river that embraces a wide area with its hundreds of years of a journey starting from the interior of Central Asia and extending to the ends of the Mediterranean, with its large and small branches". This river, fed by the Orkhon Inscriptions and the monumental philosophical work of Turk- ish, Kutadgu Bilig, as well as numerous epics such as Dede Korkut, Köroğlu, Saltuk-name, and Hamza- name, has passed Turkish culture down through generations. The river, which found valleys suitable for flowing in Anatolian lands, created a poetry her- itage with influential literary personalities such as Yunus Emre, who focused on human love and toler- ance. This heritage matured in the hearts of poets such as Fuzulî, Taşlıcalı Yahya, Nedim, Bakî, Şeyh Galib, Ziya Pasha in the Ottoman Period; in the Re- publican Period, it was handed over to poets such as Yahya Kemal and Aşık Veysel, Orhan Veli, Attila İlhan and Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca. Our writers such as Reşat Nuri, Halide Edip, Ahmet Haşim, Halid Ziya, Refik Halid, and Ömer Seyfettin created master- pieces in modern literary genres such as novels and short stories that entered Turkish literature during the transition from the Ottoman Period to the Re- public. Many works of Turkish literature writers of the Republican period were translated into different languages and thus Turkish literature was recog- nised abroad. Nazım Hikmet, Necip Fazıl, Yaşar Kemal, Orhan Kemal, Aziz Nesin, Sait Faik, Peyami Safa, Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Sabahattin Ali, Mus- tafa Kutlu, Adalet Ağaoğlu, Nazlı Eray, İhsan Oktay Anar, Alev Alatlı, İskender Pala, Ahmet Ümit, Ayşe Kulin, Hakan Günday and Orhan Pamuk, who re- ceived the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2006, are among the most widely read adult literature writers by foreigners. Yalvaç Ural, Gülten Dayıoğlu, Mev- lana İdris Zengin, Zeynep Cemali, Aytül Akal, Sara Şahinkanat, Behiç Ak, Fatih Erdoğan, Feridun Oral and other writers in the field of children's and young adult literature are read with interest both in Turk- ish and in the languages they are translated into. The state encourages literary figures as much as possible and works to ensure that their works are not forgotten. Critical literary figures of the past are commemorated on their birth and death anniversa- ries, and their works and names are kept alive. Vari- ous events are organised on the anniversary of the adoption of the National Anthem, and the author of the anthem, Mehmet Akif Ersoy, is also commemo- rated within this framework. Mustafa Necati Sepetçioğlu Tarık Buğra O ur country's rich cultural heritage in fine arts is preserved through painting and sculpture museums and 35 art galleries af- filiated with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in Ankara, İzmir and Erzurum. In addition, award- winning competitions are organised to popularise the visual arts among the public and support art- ists working in this field. History of Visual Arts Fine Arts Education The Sanayi-i Nefise Mekteb-i Âlî (School of Fine Arts), founded by Osman Hamdi Bey in 1882, was renamed the Academy of Fine Arts in 1928, the State Academy of Fine Arts in 1964, Mimar Sinan University in 1983 and Mimar Sinan Fine Arts Uni- versity in 2003. Painting The art of painting, which started to become wide- spread in Türkiye in the second half of the 19th cen- tury, developed under the leadership of military painters known as 'Photo Interpreters', and Osman Hamdi Bey, who had an excellent grasp of Western painting techniques, brought a different perspec- tive to this art. Painters such as İbrahim Çallı, Hik- met Onat, Namık İsmail, Avni Lifij and Feyhaman Duran, who went to Europe for art education in the 1910s, introduced the principles of impression- ism or symbolist interpretations to Turkish paint- ing. These artists, known as the "1914 Generation", also trained the painters of the "Republican Pe- riod" as faculty members of the Academy of Fine Arts. These artists broke the foreign influence in the academy and paved the way for Turkish art- ists. Ali Avni Çelebi and Zeki Kocamemi, the first painters to bring modern interpretations to Turk- ish painting and known as "Müstakiller" (Indepen- dents), shared the expressionist and structuralist understanding of painting with their friends Şeref Akdik, Mahmut Cüda, Hale Asaf, Muhittin Seba- ti, Refik Epikman, Cevat Dereli and the sculptor Ratip Aşir Acudoğlu after impressionism lost its influence due to the effects of the Hoffman School. Taking this breakthrough to new horizons, Zeki Faik İzer, Nurullah Berk, Elif Naci, Cemal Tollu, Abidin Dino, Sabri Berkel and the sculptor Zühtü Müridoğlu united under the name "Group D" and turned toward abstractions with analytical analy- ses originating from cubism. French painter and engraver Leopold Levy was appointed the Head of the Painting Department of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1937. Levy introduced a new system to the academy staff and the Group D painters. While Turgut Atalay and Mümtaz Yen- FINE ARTS 270 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD er, artists of the "Yeniler Group" founded by his stu- dents, were orientated toward social realities, Nuri İyem started from the abstract and became the painter of Anatolian women, slums, strikes and migrations. While the non-figurative painting formed by the "Newcomers" was developed by painters such as Mübin Orhon, Fahrünnisa Zeyd, Nejat Devrim, Lütfü Günay, Devrim Erbil, Özdemir Altan, Ad- nan Turani, Güngör Taner and Mustafa Ata in the 1950s, social realist painting became widespread in Duran Karaca's views of Çukurova, Cihat Aral's canvases and among the artists trained in the workshop of Neşet Günal and Neşe Erdok. In the 1950s, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu and the "Them Group", a group of artists trained in his workshop, combined traditional sources, miniature calligra- phy, rugs, carpets and mosaics with contemporary interpretations. While Mehmet Pesen and Nedim Günsür turned towards traditions, Orhan Peker, Leyla Gamsız and Turan Erol added the expres- sive power of colour and stain abstractions to their paintings. As the art of painting made a significant breakthrough in the 1980s and 1990s, changes took place in canvas painting, especially in "fantas- tic realism", and artists such as Fikret Mualla, Avni Arbaş, Burhan Uygur, Ergin Inan, Erol Akyavaş, Burhan Dogancay, Utku Varlik achieved interna- tional success. Artists such as Gökhan Anlağan, Hüsamettin Koçan, Mehmet Gün, Mahir Güven, Alp Tamer Ulukılıç, İsmet Doğan, Mehmet Uygun, Altan Çelem, Selda Asal and Serhat Kiraz brought new dimensions to Turkish art with canvas paintings or conceptual applications. Pioneering and experi- mental works were supported by the "New Ten- dencies" exhibitions, the first of which took place within the framework of the Istanbul Art Festival organised in 1977. Since 1980, conceptual art works have also become widespread. Zahit Büyükişleyen, İsmet Doğan, Serhat Kiraz, Zafer Gençaydın, Şenol Yokozlu, Bedri Baykam, Tomur Atagök, Habip Aydoğdu, Vural Yurdakul, Mustafa Ata, Güngör Taner are some of the famous painters. Fountain Landscape - Avni Lifij Sağırbozlar - Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu 271 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Sculpture The artists trained in Osgan Efendi's workshop, Nijat Sirel and Mahir Tomruk are the first trained artists of sculpture. Canonica's Istanbul-Taksim Republic Monument, Hanak and Thorak's Anka- ra-Güven Park Monument, Krippel's The Statue of Ataturk in Sarayburnu-İstanbul and Victory Mon- ument in Ulus-Ankara reflect the characteristics of this period. Turkish sculptors also worked on monuments. Ali Hadi Bara, Zühtü Müridoğlu, Nijat Sirel, Hakkı Atamulu, Yavuz Görey, Kamil Sonad, İlhan Ko- man, Hüseyin Gezer, Turgut Pura and Ratip Aşir Acudoğlu are prominent names in monument making. In 1937, the German sculptor Rudolf Belling was appointed Head of the Sculpture Department of the State Academy of Fine Arts and trained many students until 1954. The statues of İnönü in Taşlık Park in Istanbul and the garden of Ankara Univer- sity Faculty of Agriculture belong to Belling. Sculptors, who mostly created figurative works, experimented with figurative-abstract and non- figurative techniques, and artists such as Ali Hadi Bara, İlhan Koman, Mehmet Şadi Çalık and Turgut Pura favoured abstract applications. Ali Hadi Bara and Zühtü Müridoğlu occupy the most prominent position among Republican-era artists. These artists, who won essential prizes in national and international competitions, worked as instructors at the academy from 1955 onwards and pioneered the development of activities other than monument making. İlhan Koman and Şadi Çalık were also among the instructors in these years when wood and metal materials began to be used in sculpture production. This period co- incides with the student years of sculptors such as Ali Teoman Germaner, Tamer Başoğlu, Gürdal Duyar, Namık Denizhan, Kuzgun Acar, Füsun Onur and Semahat Acuner. In 1961, Kuzgun Acar, who won the first prize in the Sculpture Branch of the Paris Youth Biennale, gave the most compelling examples of abstract work. From the 70s onwards, more comprehensive ties with world art began to be established. Among the artists who realised their works in a variety of materials and approaches are Mehmet Aksoy, Ferit Özşen, Saim Bugay, Meriç Hızal Başol, Remzi Savaş, Koray Ariş, Bihrat Mavitan and Rahmi Ak- sungur. Bird - Ali Teoman Germaner Ceramic Artist Füreya Koral 272 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Ceramics Ceramic education started at the State Academy of Fine Arts in the 1930s. In the early years of the Republic, artists were sent abroad. İsmail Hakkı Oygar, Hakkı İzer and Vedat Ar, who were among the first ceramic artists to receive education in Par- is, returned home and they approached ceramics from a different perspective than the conventional one and began to produce original works.Füreya Koral, who created ceramics in the artistic sense, established the first private ceramic studio in Tür- kiye and contributed significantly to the training of artists such as Bingül Başarır, Tüzüm Kızılcan and Alev Ebuzziya. The first international organisation in which art- ists such as İsmail Hakkı Oygar, Füreya Koral and Bingül Başarır participated in a joint exhibition was held in Prague in 1962, and the artists were awarded gold medals. Nasip İyem, Seniye Fenman, Ayfer Karamani, Melike Abasıyanık Kurtiç, Hamiye Çolakoğlu, Attila Galatalı, Ünal Cimit, Bingül Başarır, Ber- il Anılanmert, Candeğer Fürtun, Erdinç Bakla, Tüzüm Kızılcan, Güngör Güner, Zehra Çobanlı, Mustafa Tunçalp, Jale Yılmabaşar and Tülin Ayta are among the important ceramic artists who pro- duced works at the international level. Photography The increased importance given to art and artists with the support of Atatürk also impacted Turkish photography. Cemal Işıksel, Nurettin Erkılıç, Selahattin Giz, Li- masollu Naci, Şinasi Barutçu, İhsan Erkılıç and Baha Gelenbevi were the first important photog- raphers of the Republican period. The beginning of the period when Turkish photography regained its true identity and opened up to the outside world was the beginning of the 1960s. In particular, the se- lection of Ara Güler as one of the seven-star photog- raphers of the world in England in 1961 was the first indication that Turkish photography had begun to gain a place in the world. After the 1960s, Turkish photography, which made its voice heard with names such as Ozan Sağdıç, Sıtkı Fırat, Zeynel Yeşilay, Gültekin Çizgen and Şahin Kaygun, attracted attention with the firm steps it took. Atilla Torunoğlu, Abdullah Broth- ers, Ahmet Saral, Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu, Kutluğ Ataman, Attila Durak, Rahmizâde Bâhâeddin Be- diz, Burak Gökhan Yolcu, Cenk Mirat Pekcanattı, Ceren Karaçayır, Coşkun Aral, Doruk Çetin, Ebru Ceylan, Eleni Küreman, Gökşin Sipahioğlu, Ha- luk Çobanoğlu, Nazif Topçuoğlu, Mustafa Kapkın, Halim Kulaksız, Reha Günay, Fikret Otyam, Şemsi Güner, Sabit Kalfagil, İsa Çelik, İzzet Keribar, Şakir Eczacıbaşı, Cengiz Karlıova, İsa Özdemir, İbrahim Demirel, Sami Güner, Mehmet Bayhan, İbrahim Göğer, Çerkeş Karadağ, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Ramazan Öztürk, Gökhan Demirer, Cengiz Engin, Orhan Cem Çetin, Merih Akoğul, Tuğrul Çakar, Merter Oral, Tansu Gürpınar, Necmettin Külahçı, Tahir Ün, Uğur Okçu, Reha Bilir and Tarık Yurtgezer are among the names that attract attention with their successful works. In 1978, photography education started with the In- stitute of Photography, established under the roof of the State Academy of Fine Arts. The institutions Autumn in Mulberry Gardens - Sıtkı Fırat 273 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD providing photography education have increased with the departments opened in other universities. In 2003, with the establishment of the Photograph- ic Arts Federation Of Türkiye (TFSF), the art of pho- tography took an organisational stride forward. Caricature Cemal Nadir Güler and Ramiz Gökçe were two prominent figures among Turkish caricature art- ists during the Classical Caricature Period follow- ing the establishment of the Republic. "Akbaba", the longest-lasting humour magazine of the period, published by Yusuf Ziya Ortaç, where different un- derstandings were exhibited, left its mark on the pe- riod with its strong staff of writers and illustrators. After 1950, the "Contemporary Caricature Period" began. "Marko Paşa", published by Sabahattin Ali and Aziz Nesin and illustrated by Mustafa Uyku- suz, was the most critical humour magazine of the period. The caricature artists of the 1950 generation, who brought a new understanding to the art of carica- ture, developed cartoon humour that did not rely on writing and words and popularised it not only through drawing but also through collective exhi- bitions, articles, seminars and humour magazines such as "41 Buçuk", "Tef", "Dolmuş", "Taş Karikatür". Turhan Selçuk, Nehar Tüblek, Ali Ulvi Ersoy, Efla- tun Nuri Koç, Selma Emiroğlu, Semih Balcıoğlu, Bedri Koraman, Altan Erbulak, Mustafa Eremektar, Sinan Bıçakçıoğlu, Ferruh Doğan, Tonguç Yaşar, Suat Yalaz, Yalçın Çetin and Oğuz Aral were well- known caricature artists of the period. Turkish caricature, which entered a period of stagnation after 1960, began to renew itself in the early 1970s, thus starting the "New Caricature" period, which has lasted until today and has also moved away from abstract expressions. Cafer Zorlu, Zeki Beyner, Tan Oral, Nezih Danyal, Ercan Akyol, Erdoğan Bo- zok and Orhan Özdemir, who grew up between 1960 and 1970, continued the understanding of caricature formed by the 50's generation by making original contributions. In 1971, the weekly humour magazine "Gırgır", which started to be published under the management of Oğuz Aral, was renamed "Avni" in 1989 and became the third largest humour magazine in the world. During this period, awards were won in international contests, works were published in foreign newspapers and journals, cari- catures were placed in albums and museums, and Türkiye began to host national and international competitions. The first Caricature Museum in Tür- kiye was established in 1975. After 1980, İsmail Gülgeç, Kâmil Masaracı, Salih Memecan, Behiç Ak, Haşan Kaçan, Ergün Gündüz, Latif Demirci and Haslet Soyöz criticised and inter- preted the changes in values in society by combin- ing words and writing in their cartoons. Opened in 2002, Anadolu University Research Cen- tre for Cartoon Art has a museum with approxi- mately 2,200 works in its archive. Majid Amini - Aydın Doğan International Cartoon Competition 2013 274 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Since 1983, more than 6,500 artists from 130 coun- tries have participated in the Aydın Doğan Inter- national Cartoon Competition, known worldwide as the "Cartoon Oscars". The works participating in the competition are presented to the public through exhibitions in Türkiye and abroad. Competitions The Ministry of Culture and Tourism organises competitions to encourage and reward artists working in visual arts. State Competition on Painting and Sculpture The 75th State Competition on Painting and Sculp- ture, held annually since 1939 and comprising of painting, sculpture, original prints, and ceramics, was held in 2021. Şefik Bursalı Painting Competition Organised in memory of Şefik Bursalı, one of the masters of contemporary painting, the 19th "Şefik Bursalı Painting Competition" was held in 2021. State Photography Competition The 20th "State Photography Competition", held every two years by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism to bring new works to the state collec- tion and contribute to the development of the art of photography, will be held between 1 August-12 September 2022. State Competition on Turkish Arts Within the framework of the "State Turkish Deco- rative Arts Exhibition" (the competition has been organised as the State Competition on Turkish Arts since 2019), which has been held biennially since 1981 in order to encourage artists who pro- duce in this field to contemporary interpretation and to exhibit the artists' latest works, “Calligra- phy Competition”, “Illumination Competition”, "Marbling Competition”, "Miniature Competition”, "Tile Art Competition”, “Painted Decoration Com- petition” and “Turkish Paper Cut Competition” are held. The 21st of the competitions were held in 2022. "Young Art" Contests Competitive exhibitions in Visual Arts are organ- ised to support young artists. Young Art: Contemporary Art Project Competition: The "Young Art: Current Art Project Contest" was organised in 2015 to create a platform enabling young people in our country to express themselves freely and create independent productions. As the name suggests, the competitive exhibition is or- ganised among young artists studying in the field of applied visual art and in the field of contempo- rary art. The "Current Art Project Contest" started to be organised in 2015 to support contemporary art and young artists in our country and create a platform that will enable them to express them- selves freely and produce independently. Young Art: Poster Design Contest: Another competition organised by our General Di- rectorate since 2016 is the "Poster Design Contest" to support young designers and artists studying in the field of graphic design and to raise awareness on specified issues. MUSEUMS OF PAINTING AND SCULPTURE Ankara Museum of Painting and Sculpture The Ankara Museum of Painting and Sculpture, which has one of the richest collections in the his- tory of Turkish art in visual arts, was reopened to visitors on December 28, 2020, after extensive restoration works were carried out on its historical building and works. The collection of the Ankara Museum of Painting and Sculpture is presented in a historical framework extending from the Otto- man Empire to the Republic, from the 1960s to the 1990s and up to the present day. 275 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The museum also reveals its strong representation by hosting the artefacts in its body, which has a historical adventure of more than 200 years. Erzurum The State Art and Sculpture Museum and Gallery Erzurum The State Art and Sculpture Museum and Gallery continues to serve in the Old Con- gress Building, which was renovated in 2018. The collection of the museum consists of the works of pioneering artists reflecting the characteristics of various periods of Turkish painting art. The Muse- um, which contains actual examples of Turkish art history, has a critical identity within the regional sphere of influence with the historical importance of the building and the works of art's historic qual- ity. İzmir Painting and Sculpture Museum and Gallery After the 2020 İzmir earthquake, the İzmir Paint- ing and Sculpture Museum, which was decided to be evacuated, was opened to visitors on March 25, 2022, to temporarily serve after the comple- tion of the repair of the Ceramic Works Building within the İzmir History and Art Museum, which will be used for the conservation and display of the works in its inventory. The Museum's collec- tion of distinguished artefacts, which are essential building blocks of our country's cultural heritage, is enriched daily. The works belonging to the sym- bolised artists of the Tanzimat Period and the vital representatives of the Republican Period and the periods that developed with it constitute the col- lection of the Museum. Ankara Museum of Painting and Sculpture Erzurum The State Art and Sculpture Museum and Gallery 276 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T raditional arts are the concrete expres- sion of social and cultural lifestyles, be- liefs, and needs. Traditional art producers have transferred their knowledge from master to apprentice, from parent to child, by conventional methods. Traditional arts in Türkiye express a rich culture formed by the combination of the cultural heritage of various civilisations from the thousands of years of Anatolia's history with the Turks' own values coming from their historical ac- cumulation. Our traditional arts include folk literature (min- strelsy, being a poet, being a zakir-Alevi musician), folk theatre (Karagöz, traditional improvised the- atre, meddah, spectacle plays, etc.) and traditional handicrafts. Traditional handicrafts in Türkiye are earthworks (pottery, tile making, ceramics, etc.), metal works (coppersmithing, silversmithing, jewellery mak- ing, etc.), glass works (glass blowing, evil eye beads, etc.), wood works (kündekâri, cane making, spoon making, etc.), stone works (meerschaum, oltu stone, stone embroidery, etc.), leather works (making of Karagöz figures, yemeni scarf making, Example of palace type carpet from Turkish handicrafts TRADITIONAL ARTS 278 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD sandal making, etc.), yarn/textile works (shuttle- loom/kirkit weaving and knitting, etc.), animal/ plant wastes (broom making, silksmithing, and felt making) are handled under eight main head- ings according to their raw materials. However, some handicrafts are created using more than one raw material. Turkish decorative arts (marbling, illumination, miniature, calligraphy, Turkish paper cut, painted decoration, etc.), another field evaluated within the scope of traditional crafts, have an impor- tant place in our ancient culture. The decorative arts, carried from Central Asia to Anatolia, gained great importance during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods and reached the Republican period with the accumulation of centuries. The State Academy of Fine Arts established the Department of Turk- ish Decorative Arts in 1936, and training in illumi- nation, calligraphy, marbling, miniature, and tile art began. The General Directorate of Research and Educa- tion of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism car- ries out practical studies for the identification, protection and survival of traditional arts that shed light on the past and carry the tradition to the present day. Field research is carried out in different provinces annually, and all the infor- mation obtained is recorded in the Folk Culture Information and Documentation Centre. These records are made available to scientists, experts and students; traditional knowledge is transmit- ted through non-formal education courses, and An example from the art of calligraphy An example of tile art 279 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD traditional artists are recorded and encouraged through artist identification cards and various support projects. Currently, "Arts of the Meddah, public storytellers", "Âşıklık (Minstrelsy) Tradi- tion", "Karagöz", "Ebru: Turkish Art of Marbling", "Traditional craftsmanship of Çini-making", "Art of Miniature" and "Hüsn-i Hat: Traditional callig- raphy in Islamic art in Türkiye" were registered with UNESCO on behalf of Türkiye and declared as a common heritage of humanity (see "Türkiye in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists"). To preserve Turkish decorative arts and tradition- al handicrafts and to increase social awareness of these arts, "Traditional Handicrafts Festivals" are organised all over the country and artists are as- signed to many cultural events on a national scale. Efforts are being made to keep our ancient culture alive and increase its recognition by ensuring high-level participation in the traditional handi- crafts festivals organised throughout the country with the support of artists. In these events, our artists contribute to promoting our traditional handicrafts with their workshops and exhibition activities. In addition, to promote our traditional handi- crafts, which are an essential element of our an- cient culture and civilisation values, within the scope of bilateral culture-tourism agreements, our artists participate in events in many countries of the world. In addition, projects are evaluated within the framework of the cultural policies determined by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism to prevent the danger of rapid change and extinction of our cultural values. Financial support is provided for their realisation to protect the authenticity of our cultural heritage values that are about to disap- pear, to keep them alive, to develop them and to pass them down from generation to generation through healthy, principled and development-ori- ented cultural programmes that embrace change. An example of miniature art 280 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T ürkiye, with its unique geographical position as a bridge between Europe and Asia, has been home to different cultures throughout history. Each region of Türkiye has a different pro- file in terms of cultural, geographical and climatic conditions that enrich the overall character of the country. In such a landscape, which forms a cradle where many different civilisations have come to- gether, the richness of different lifestyles, art and architecture cannot be ignored. Especially when it comes to the architectural character and history of Türkiye, architectures with different qualities come to the forefront. Türkiye's architectural heritage dates back to 7400 BC with Çatalhöyük. This remarkable site is rec- ognised as one of the oldest urban settlements in the world. Small rectangular houses characterise the cityscape of Çatalhöyük, built side by side with no streets between them. This meant that, quite unusu- ally, the houses were accessed from a wooden stair- case via a roof, and the roofs functioned as streets, allowing people to move around the settlement. Likewise, in Troy, the site of the most famous battle in ancient history, we can recognise architectural innovations with one of the earliest examples of megaron (plural of megara - city-state in Ancient Greece) type buildings dating back to the 3rd mil- lennium BC. Megara are rectangular spaces, usu- ally with an entrance to a porch at the front of the building. It is one of the most common architectural types in the ancient world, often used in Greek tem- ples. Priene, the best preserved Classical City of antiq- uity, offers the opportunity to fully imagine the cityscape of an ancient city from the 4th century BC, in its golden age, in one of the most exciting peri- ods of the ancient world. The archaic settlement of Priene was relocated in 350 BC, probably due to the silting of the ancient Menderes River. The urgent need to rebuild the city allowed planners to develop a Hippodamian (grid) plan for the town. Today, the city's grid plan is recognised as being far ahead of its time. Most of the ancient architectural remains of Tür- kiye in the Roman Period belong to the glorious Pax Romana period, the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, when a relatively long period of peace existed in the region, allowing cities to flourish and embark on grand decorations according to their splendour. Luxury and prosperity reveal its urban architecture by adding monumental buildings such as baths, gymnasiums, fountains and temples. These build- ings were often donated to cities by wealthy aristo- cratic benefactors. ARCHITECTURAL CULTURAL HERITAGE IN TÜRKİYE 282 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Seljuk Architecture The Seljuks arrived in Anatolia in the early 11th cen- tury AD. By the end of the 12th century, during the reign of Kılıç Arslan II, they had achieved politi- cal stability. They built a series of caravanserais to create a safe trade route linking cities to improve infrastructure and communication within their borders. A caravanserai functioned as a medieval fortress hotel for merchants and travellers. Cara- vanserais were built at one-day travelling inter- vals along the most important trade routes. They provided food and shelter for the merchants and shelter for their pack animals and goods. The gov- ernment army guarded caravanserais. In the 13th century, trade prospered as a result of the safe zone they provided. Caravanserais are therefore recog- nised as the most potent political and economical architectural symbols of the Seljuk period. Caravanserais were not the only architectural project undertaken by the Seljuks. They also con- structed public buildings such as mosques, ma- drasahs (educational and charitable complexes), mausoleums, bridges and tekkes. These buildings drew their inspiration from the many cultural tra- ditions of Mesopotamia and Anatolia. This cultur- al synthesis resulted in the Seljuk style, which was completely original. Deeply influenced by Islamic philosophy, mysti- cism and Shamanism, these buildings are decorat- ed with motifs inspired by the concept of univer- sal order. Often, geometric patterns symbolizing the cosmic order are carved into the stones around the entrances of buildings to underline that it is a metaphorical reflection of the transition from the exterior to the interior, the journey from the mac- rocosmos to the microcosmos. The "star system" or "floral ornaments" are the most famous patterns of this detail, sometimes described as a flow of flow- ers. The most beautiful urban examples of Seljuk ar- chitecture can be found in Central and Eastern Anatolia, but especially in Konya, the capital of the Seljuks. The Karatay Madrasah, the Ince Minareli Madrasah, and the Aladdin Mosque are the best examples in this emblematic city. Ottoman Architecture Following the reign of the Seljuks, dozens of Turk- men dynasties (Beyliks) began to emerge in Ana- Konya Karatay Madrasa İnce Minareli Madrasa 283 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD tolia in the 13th century. One of these dynasties, known as the Osmanoğlu, would later become the Ottoman Empire, one of the most potent and long- lasting empires in Anatolia and the world. Both Byzantine and Seljuk architecture profound- ly influenced the Ottoman architectural style. In particular, the proliferation of domes separating the spaces below is recognised as a reinterpreta- tion of Byzantine and Seljuk traditions in a more authentic Islamic manner. Although the earliest mosques were mostly cubic buildings covered by a single dome, later architects seem to have sought ways to expand the spaces. The Great Mosque in Bursa is a representative example of the multiple dome approach. Ottoman architecture reached its peak in the 16th century, largely thanks to the master Mimar Sinan, who balanced the external splendour of his designs with enriched interior decoration. The balance be- tween light and dark, free space and rich ornamen- tation, and straight and curved architectural lines brought the classical Ottoman mosque tradition to its peak. Although the Selimiye Mosque in Ed- irne is Mimar Sinan's masterpiece, there are many other magnificent works in Istanbul, such as the Süleymaniye and Mihrimah Sultan Mosques or the Kılıç Ali Paşa Complex. Republican Period The intention to restructure the architectural cul- ture in the country gained momentum after the education report prepared by the American edu- cator John Dewey in 1926. Technical education, "learning by practising", and efforts to adapt to the era were achieved by opening new schools such as Gazi Education Institute and Technical Schools and by reforming the education systems of insti- tutions such as Sanayi-i Nefise (Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University), Mühendishane (Istanbul Techni- cal University) and Usta School (Yıldız Technical University), which trained technical staff for rail- ways, under the leadership of experts such as Hol- zmeister, Egli, Wagner and Taut. Today, there are architecture departments at the university level in Türkiye, and many graduates are practising their profession in various coun- tries, far away from the "local architect/foreign ar- chitect" debate. When the quality of architecture in Türkiye is ana- lysed in terms of styles, it is seen that starting from the early years of the Republic, there was a "search for identity" that tried to break away from the "Ot- toman revivalism". This search was first attempted to be re-estab- lished under the name of "First National" with architect teachers such as Architect Kemallet- First Prime Ministry building – ANKARA Bursa Grand Mosque 284 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD tin, Giulio Mongeri, Vedat Tek and Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu, and then continued in modern archi- tecture products called "Ankara cubic" under the leadership of specialists from Central Europe such as Holzmeister, Egli, Elsaesser and Taut. In the second half of the 1930s, as a result of the reaction to "cubic architecture" and Art-Deco ex- amples, the passion for learning and belonging to the authentic origins, and the period during which examples of "second national architecture," the name given to the seminar led by Sedad Hakkı El- dem, were widely applied, a distinctive "creating style" emerged. After World War II, widespread searches in the world also emerged in Türkiye; a more essentialist and permanent understanding of modern architecture left its mark on the build- ings built by both the public and private sectors. The Real Estate and Credit Bank of Türkiye, the Turkish Pension Fund, municipalities and the central government were responsible for many of these buildings. In the field of architecture in Türkiye, Turgut Can- sever, Doğan Tekeli, Behruz Çinici, Şevki Vanlı, Cengiz Bektaş, Han Tümertekin, Nevzat Sayın, Murat Tabanlıoğlu, Emre Arolat and many other nationally/internationally renowned architects of different generations and understandings contin- ue to diversify this rich cultural environment with their products. Süleymaniye Mosque 285 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Süleymaniye Mosque 286 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T urkish music has developed in many diffe- rent areas from the Seljuk period until to- day. These areas are classical music created by the intelligentsia in the cities, Turkish folk mu- sic, religious music and mehter music, which deve- loped as a direct discourse of the Anatolian people for centuries. Other popular music genres include pop, rock, and jazz, all of which have gained in po- pularity in recent years. Along with 26 artistic units consisting of orchest- ras, choirs and ensembles in the field of music, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism carries out its services and activities intending to promote poly- phonic music with classic and modern examples and transfer our Turkish music and folk dances to the next generations in their original and proper way and increase the awareness by disseminating them throughout the country and in the internati- onal community. Ulvi Cemal Erkin MUSIC 288 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Polyphonic Turkish Music Efforts in Turkish music became widespread after the declaration of the Republic. Under Atatürk's le- adership, a move toward Western music began, in which modern and Turkish folk music were used as the foundation for music studies and performan- ces, and international music techniques and inst- ruments were adopted. Fundamental institutions began to be established with both students sent abroad and experts such as Joseph Marx, Paul Hin- demith, Carl Ebert and Bela Bartok brought from abroad. Founded in 1924, Music Teachers' School became the Ankara State Conservatory in 1936, and efforts to integrate folk music into the polyphonic system of the West were intensified. Artists such as Cemal Reşit Rey, Ahmed Adnan Saygun, Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Ferit Alnar, Necil Kâzım Akses, the Turkish Five, who formed the first generation of composers of the Republic, were trained in various conservatories in the West. Later generations formed a Turkish scho- ol of composition based on folk music on the one hand and Western trends on the other. Although there are significant differences in style and unders- tanding between them, the common characteristic of the first generation of composers is that they use folk music and include local motifs and folkloric melodies in their works. Adnan Saygun, who did re- search and compilations on Turkish folklore, trans- formed impressionism into a nationalist attitude and significantly promoted Turkish music with his conferences and concerts in foreign countries. The domestic concerts of the Presidential Symp- hony Orchestra, the oldest symphonic ensemb- le, and its concerts in Germany, the USA, France, Spain, Italy, Italy, South Korea, Russia and many other countries have played a significant role in the promotion and popularisation of polyphonic Turkish music. The Orchestra received the "2008 Honour Award" from the Sevda Cenap And Music Foundation. On 29 October 2021, the Istanbul Atatürk Cultural Centre was inaugurated with a magnificent cere- mony by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, enab- ling the activities of our art units to reach a wider audience of art lovers. Presidential Symphony Orchestra (CSO) Island Opening Suna Kan Istanbul Atatürk Cultural Centre 289 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The Presidential Symphony Orchestra Concert Hall and Choir Practice Buildings were inaugura- ted with a magnificent event on 3 December 2020 with the participation of our President. In addition to the Istanbul, İzmir, Antalya, Bur- sa and Çukurova state symphony orchestras, the State Polyphonic Choir, which was established in 1988, continues its activities with its concert series in Türkiye and concerts in countries such as Por- tugal, the Netherlands, South Korea, Israel, Russia, Italy, Italy and Bulgaria, and it has been accepted as a member of the European Professional Choirs Association as of 2019. In addition to state orchestras, Bilkent Symphony Orchestra, Borusan Istanbul Philharmonic Orc- hestra and Tekfen Philharmonic Orchestra are among the essential private orchestras. In the field of polyphonic music, award-winning conductors such as Hikmet Şimşek, Gürer Aykal, Rengim Gökmen and Betin Güneş, who have con- ducted foreign ensembles and recorded at Türkiye and abroad, as well as world-renowned musicians were trained who received education abroad as a result of the law enacted for gifted children. İdil Bi- ret (pianist), Suna Kan (violinist), Güher and Süher Pekinel sisters (pianist), İsmail Aşan (violinist), Fa- zıl Say (pianist), Cihat Aşkın (violinist), Ayla Erdu- ran (violinist) and Gülşen Tatu (flutist) are some of the famous Turkish musicians who won prizes in international competitions and made records. Classical Turkish Music The establishment of the foundations of classical Turkish music, urban music, and the emergence of its unique identity covers a long period of time. The earliest examples are the works of musical scholars and composers such as al-Kindi, Fara- bi (870-950), Safiyüddin Abdül-mümin Urmevi (1237-1294) and Meragalı Abdülkadir (1360-1412). The late 17th-century composer Buhurizade Mus- tafa Itri Efendi (1640-1712) is considered to have brought classical Turkish music to its peak. The primary instrument of Turkish music is the tambour. Other instruments include melody inst- ruments such as the ney, kemancha, oud, kanun, rebab, santur, violin, and rhythm instruments such as circle, daf, kudum, and cymbal. Classical Turkish music is thematically divided into two main branches: religious and non-reli- gious. There are hundreds of maqams in Turkish music, essentially makam music. The rhythm patterns called "usul" are also very diverse. Inter- mediate sounds, which are not found in Western music, are unique elements of the Turkish music sound system. This gives Turkish music, which is monophonic, unlimited possibilities of movement and richness of melody. Classical Turkish music education institutions were the Enderun and tekkes under the palace Safiye Ayla 290 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD during the Ottoman period. Darülelhan (House of Melodies), founded at the end of the Ottoman pe- riod, was the first official school of Turkish music. In the Republican period, it was first named Is- tanbul Municipal Conservatory and then Istanbul University State Conservatory. Today in Türkiye, there is the Istanbul Technical University Turkish Music Conservatory, founded in 1979, and many university conservatories have been established since then. The state radios established in the Republican era have played an essential role in the education and training of classical Turkish music and its perfor- mance. Istanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Diyarbakır, Di- yarbakır, Elazığ, Bursa, Mersin and Samsun State Classical Turkish Music Choirs, Istanbul Historical Turkish Music Ensemble, Istanbul State Turkish Music Research and Application Ensemble, Edir- ne and Istanbul State Turkish Music Ensembles and Konya Turkish Sufi Music Ensemble are some other institutions of today's classical Turkish mu- sic world. Examples of prominent artists of classical Turkish music in the Republican period are; Rauf Yekta, Sadettin Arel, Suphi Ezgi, Münir Nurettin Selçuk, Safiye Ayla, Sadettin Kaynak, Selahattin Pınar, Emin Ongan, Nevzat Atlığ, Alaeddin Yavaşça, Ni- yazi Sayın, Necdet Yaşar, Süheyla Altmışdört, Avni Anıl, İsmail Hakkı Özkan, Erol Deran, Cinuçen Tanrıkorur, Meral Uğurlu, İnci Çayırlı, Müzeyyen Senar, Zeki Müren and İhsan Özgen. Turkish Folk Music The present widespread existence of Turkish folk music has been slowly filtered through the Turks' deep-rooted ancient artistic taste and tradition. In the early 1900s, the concrete drops of this infiltra- tion, i.e. folk music and its products, were referred to as "folk song, song..." both in folk language and scientific texts. In the late 19th century, the discip- line of folklore, which developed and became wi- despread in Europe, gained importance in the last periods of the Ottoman Empire before the Repub- lic. Ziya Gökalp published his first article on this field in 1913 in his magazine "Halka Doğru". Ac- cording to Ziya Gökalp, the true music of the Turk would emerge as a result of the harmonisation of the national music of the people with Western mu- sical technique and harmony. This idea attracted much attention, and after 1916, efforts to compile folk melodies intensified. This idea retained its va- lue after the Republic, and compilation activities continued under an institutional framework until the 1950s. Independent of this idea, compilation studies were carried out in an individual dimensi- on after the 1950s until today. As a result of the compilation activities, folk me- lodies were recorded and notated, and receipt no- tes were kept. Afterwards, archiving studies were carried out first by the Istanbul Municipal Con- servatory (formerly Dârülelhan) and Ankara State Conservatory, and later by TRT and the Ministry of Culture (Hagem). In the early years of the Republic, under the influ- ence of Ziya Gökalp's views, with the support of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and within the framework of his music policy, the serious meeting of folk melodies with the harmony, forms and styles of the West, and their origin, began with the Turkish Five (Cemal Reşit Rey, A. Adnan Saygun, Ulvi Ce- mal Erkin, Ferit Alnar, Necil Kazım Akses). This approach was continued by the composers of the following periods (İlhan Usmanbaş, Yalçın Tura). Muzaffer Sarısözen and Yurttan Sesler Topluluğu (Voices from the Homeland Ensemble) 291 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Efforts to popularise folk melodies throughout the country were first initiated in 1924 with the publi- cation of Darülelhan's (House of Melodies' Maga- zine) and later in 1937 with the broadcasts of the performances of the "Voices from the Homeland Ensemble" on the radio. Education and training continued until it was banned at Darülelhan for a short period (intermittently between 1917 and 1926). However, complete and uninterrupted aca- demic traditional education and training started at the Istanbul Technical University Turkish Music State Conservatory, which was established in 1976. Afterwards, the conservatories based in other pro- vinces continued to expand the spectrum. Authentic folk music programmes on radio by artists such as Sadi Yaver Ataman, Tamburacı Osman Pehlivan, Servet Coşkunses and Muzaffer Sarısözen attracted great interest. Muzaffer Sarısö- zen transformed the name "Voices from the Home- land", which was used as the name of a programme on the radio, into the name of the ensemble he for- med consisting of traditional folk instruments and a group of vocalists in the following period (1941). As a result of the separation of common folk music performance from classical Turkish music, Muzaf- fer Sarsözen became the pioneer name who bran- ched and institutionalised the role of Turkish Folk Music in Turkish Music. From then on, the choral and orchestral journey of folk melodies with their dialect, style, manner and traditional line within the discipline of notation and music began. The institutionalisation of folk music gained a new structure with the Ankara State Turkish Folk Mu- sic Choir, which was established in 1986 under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and conducted by Mehmet Özbek, This new structure is based on tradition, protective-developing, more open and original approach and it benefits from polyphony in both choral and orchestral structures, and this approach includes folk dances according to theme and need, apart from the understanding of "Voices from the Homeland". In 1986, with this understan- ding, the works and concerts, started with Condu- ctor Mehmet Özbek, were successful and appre- ciated. In 2007, with the retirement of Conductor Mehmet Özbek, and under the management of Conductor Necmi Kıran, who was appointed to the choir in 2008, the ensemble and orchestra's re- Nida Tüfekçi Mehmet Özbek Ankara State Turkish Folk Music Choir 292 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD pertoire, performance, orchestral techniques and performance skills had improved, especially by further developing the variety of instruments and bringing the norm staff to a standard structure. In 1990, the Şanlıurfa State Turkish Folk Music Choir performance Halil Atılgan and the Sivas State Turkish Folk Music Choir conducted by Celal Vural were established under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Following these choirs, the Istanbul State Turkish Folk Music Choir was established in 2009 conducted by Uğur Kaya. In addition, within the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, different ensembles have been estab- lished under the names of Istanbul State Modern Folk Music Ensemble, Ankara Turkish World Mu- sic and Folk Dances Ensemble, İzmir State Turkish World Dance and Music Ensemble, which perform Turkish Folk Music in different formations. Turkish Folk Music, with its traditional line and diversity of performance, has been tried to be kept alive with collective and individual performances under hundreds of village institutes, associations, public education centres, conservatories, fine arts faculties, fine arts high schools and private initia- tives, together with the TRT institution and state choirs since the first years of the Republican peri- od. Apart from these institutional structures, it is also kept alive with different understandings and dimensions, private radio, private TV, cinema, re- cords, cassettes, CDs, internet, etc., mass media, and popular and local artist concerts. Turkish Folk Music in Türkiye takes its heritage and morphology from hundreds of years of history and geography beyond where Turks have resided. This noble music, on top of thousands of elegant and noble melodies with dozens of defined and undefined makam textures, besides anonymous poems, Yunus Emre, Karacaoğlan, Âşık Emrah, Âşık Ömer, Âşık Kerem, Köroğlu, It carries narra- tives with lyrical forms of hundreds of sultans of words such as Pir Sultan Abdal, Kul Himmet, Ha- taî, Nesimî, Fuzulî, Nabî, Sümmanî', Seyranî, Âşık Veysel, Âşık Mahzunî Şerif, The rhythmic structu- re of Turkish Folk Music is extremely rich. There are many examples in all types of usuls in 10-time measures. The number of samples is less in those above 10-times. Although there is no scientific limit to the maqam diversity in the melodies of Turkish Folk Music, it parallels the character of most of the maqams of Classical Turkish Music. Although many melodies are challenging to define maqam, it is also possib- le to come across themes with many new maqam characters that have not been defined. The authentic instruments of Turkish Folk Music can be listed as follows. Stringed instruments: Cura, bağlama, tambura, di- van, choghur, bozuk, ırızva, bulgarî, ikitelli, tar. Stringed Instruments: Kabak kemane, Black Sea kemençe, iklig, hegit, Kastamonu (İnebolu) ke- mençe. Wind Instruments: Zurna, dilli kaval, dilli düdük, dilsiz kaval, mey, sipsi, tulum, çığırtma, zambır Percussion Instruments: Drum, nagara, daf, Er- zurum daf, bendir, daire, darbuka, cymbal tongs, cymbal, koz. In addition to these instruments, other instru- ments used in today's Turkish Folk Music ensemb- les/orchestras are as follows. Stringed instruments: Oud, kanun, cümbüş, urfa drum, bass bağlama, bass guitar, piano Stringed Instruments: Violin and its family. Neşet Ertaş 293 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Woodwind Instruments: Clarinet, Percussion Instruments: Latin percussions, arab darbuka, kudüm, kös. Those who contributed to the development of Turkish Folk Music and those who served Turkish Folk Music Compiler-Chef: Sadi Yaver Ataman, Muzaffer Sa- rısözen, Ahmet Yamacı, Neriman Altındağ Tüfek- çi, Nida Tüfekçi, Yücel Paşmakçı, Adnan Ataman, Tuncer İnan, Mehmet Özbek, Şenel Önaldı, Meh- met Erenler, Bircan Pullukçuoğlu, Zafer Gündoğ- du, Halil Atılgan, Celal Vural, Necmi Kıran, Uğur Kaya, Solmaz Kadıoğlu, Halil Altıngöz, Bakır Ka- radağlı. National Performer (Vocal-Instrument): Neriman Altındağ Tüfekçi, Ahmet Gazi Ayhan, Nida Tü- fekçi, Yücel Paşmakçı, Talip Özkan, Yılmaz İpek, Tuncer İnan, Ali Ekber Çiçek, Ruhi Su, Yıldıray Çı- nar, Özay Gönlüm, Mehmet Özbek, Şenel Önaldı, Orhan Gencebay, Arif Sağ, Neşet Ertaş, Mükerrem Kemertaş, Bedia Akartürk, Mehmet Erenler, Bir- can Pullukçuoğlu, Hale Gür, Musa Eroğlu, İhsan Öztürk, İzzet Altınmeşe, Ümit Tokcan, İbrahim Tatlıses, Belkıs Akkale, Sabahat Akkiraz, Gülşen Kutlu, İhsan Menteş, Erol Parlak, Sinan Çelik, Fer- hat Erdem, Çetin Akdeniz, Erdal Erzincan. Local Performer (Vocal-Instrument): Osman Peh- livan, Muharrem Ertaş, Hacı Taşan, Çekiç Ali, Ce- lal Güzelses, Mukim Tahir, Enver Demirbağ, Erzin- canlı Şerif, Picoğlu Osman, Refik Başaran, Zaralı Halil, Âşık Veysel, Âşık Ali İzzet Özkan, Bayram Aracı, Hisarlı Ahmet İnegöllü, Şemsi Yastıman, Davut Sulari, Şekip Şahatoğlu, Binali Selman, Arif Şentürk, Âşık Şeref Taşlıova, Âşık Murat Çobanoğ- lu, Âşık Muhlis Akarsu, Remzi Bekar, Halil Çokyü- rekli. Researcher-Writer-Musicology: Rauf Yekta Bey, Adnan Saygun, Ferruh Arsunar, Halil Bedii Yönetken, Ragıp Gazi Kösemihal, Bela Bartok, Muzaffer Sarısözen, Yalçın Tura, Mehmet Özbek, Halil Atılgan, Güray Tapık, Sabri Yener, Süleyman Şenel, Salih Turhan, Melih Duygulu. Folk Music Traditional Orchestra Arranger-Editor: Erdal Tuğcular, Ertuğrul Bayraktarkatal, Necmi Kıran, Abdullah Kurbani. Turkish Folk Music is the living mirror of the Tur- kish people. It reflects its face and makes you feel its soul. Pop, Rock and Jazz The "rock and roll" storm that began to sweep the world in the 1960s and the "beat" concept shaped by the Beatles after 1960 was closely followed by young music groups in Türkiye. This tendency, which initially manifested in writing Turkish lyri- cs to foreign compositions, was later replaced by original compositions that combined light Wes- tern music with Turkish folk music; pieces that emphasised artistic performance, creation and musicality gained weight. A large music market has emerged in recent years in parallel with these developments. The most successful and well-known singers who come to mind when it comes to pop in Türkiye are: Ajda Pekkan, Sezen Aksu, Tarkan Tevetoğlu, Kenan Doğulu, Hande Yener, Göksel, Nilüfer, Ser- tab Erener, MFÖ, and in jazz: Kerem Görsev, İlhan Erşahin, Atilla Engin, Kudsi Erguner, Fatih Erkoç, Neşet Ruacan, and Okay Temiz. In the Eurovision Song Contest in 1997, Şebnem Paker, accompanied by Grup Etnik, came 3rd with the song Dinle, music by Levent Çoker and lyrics by Mehtap Alnıtemiz. The song had an upbeat melody with ethnic Turkish instruments and did not break from universal lines. Sertab Erener par- ticipated in the 48th Eurovision Song Contest held in Latvia on 24 May 2003 with the English song Every Way That I Can and achieved a crucial inter- national success by winning first place for Türki- ye. In the 55th Eurovision Song Contest in Norway in 2010, the band Manga came 2nd with the song "We Could Be The Same". 294 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD O pera has been accepted as the highest form of music, and efforts to establish a Turkish opera have been accelerated. In 1930, the "Opera Society" was founded in Istanbul, and 1934, the "Grand Opera Delegation staged Verdi's "La Traviata" opera". The opera "Özsoy" composed by Ahmed Adnan Saygun, successfully staged in the presence of Atatürk and Iranian Shah Rıza Pahlavi in the same year is considered a significant turning point in the history of Turkish opera. In 1936, with the opening of the Ankara State Con- servatory and the establishment of the Conserva- tory Practice Stage for final-year students, disci- plined opera studies began. The famous German composer Paul Hindemith and opera director Cari Ebert significantly contributed to the develop- ment of opera art in Türkiye. Young students, who started to grow up in this period and became the pioneers of Turkish opera, gave their first perfor- mances at the Ankara Public House Stage in 1940. In this first performance, Mozart's "Bastien and Bastienne" and the second act of Puccini's opera "Madame Butterfly" were performed in Turkish. This was followed in 1941 by the second act of Puc- cini's opera "Tosça", the complete opera "Madame Butterfly" and Beethoven's "Fidelio". OPERA AND BALLET 296 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The first official and academic ballet school was established in Istanbul in 1948, and in 1950 it was moved to Ankara and affiliated with the State Conservatory. Dame Ninette de Valois, the found- er of the British Royal Ballet, who was invited to the country in 1947 to make preparations for the establishment of the state ballet school, made significant contributions to the development of Turkish ballet. The first performance of the Bal- let Department of the Ankara State Conservatory took place in 1950, and the ballets "Pastoral Suite" and "Keloğlan" choreographed by Joy Newton were presented with Ulvi Cemal Erkin's music. This was followed by the one-act "El Amor Brujo/ büyüleyen aşk", the first ballet performance, "Cop- pelia", which was performed in its entirety, and "Çeşmebaşı", the first original ballet created by Fer- it Tüzün's music and Valois by combining Turkish folklore and ballet technique. The State Opera and Ballet started to work as a separate General Directorate de facto in 1968 and officially in 1970. The General Directorate of State Opera and Ballet, which aims to spread opera and ballet, continues its activities with its provincial organisations con- sisting of Ankara headquarters, Istanbul, İzmir, Mersin, Antalya and Samsun directorates. The General Directorate of State Opera and Bal- let continues its activities to reflect the opera and ballet arts to the Turkish people with their uni- versal dimension, evaluate the country's cultural accumulation, and contribute to the promotion of Turkish artists on a world scale. Turkish Opera and Ballet has staged all the world classics in 60- 70 years and brought the works of the creators of the new contemporary Turkish music school to the stage. New organisations such as the Modern Dance En- semble, established within the State Opera and Ballet, have also given impetus to the effort to cap- ture the universal dimension of performing arts in every field. Opera and ballet organisations also continue children's choir and ballet activities. The General Directorate of State Opera and Bal- let and its affiliated directorates continue to stage works in national and international festivals and domestic and international tours. In addition to the classical opera and ballet works that are recognised and appreciated in the world, Turkish opera, which embraces our local and na- tional values fed by the thousands of years of his- tory of Anatolia, is presented to art lovers. Many works such as "Troy" opera, "Göbeklitepe-The Sorrow of the Temple" opera and "Ninatta", which were brought to the opera and ballet repertoire and had world premieres, have been integrated into Turkish opera and continue to support the promo- tion of the ancient cultural and historical texture of our country at home and abroad through art. The epic opera "Troy" was the first Turkish opera to be staged at the "Bolshoi Theatre" in Moscow and went down in our country's art history. In addition, the world premiere of "Sinan Opera" was performed. The 29th International Aspendos Opera and Ballet Festival, the 19th International Bodrum Ballet Fes- 297 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD tival, the 13th International Istanbul Opera Festival, the 4th International Gaziantep Opera and Ballet Festival, the 5th International Ephesus Opera and Ballet Festival, the 10th Eskişehir Opera and Ballet Days, the 5th Trabzon Opera and Ballet Days. will continue to be organised by the General Director- ate of State Opera and Ballet in 2022. The General Directorate of State Opera and Ballet continues to carry out its initiatives intensively to reach the na- tional and international art lovers with up-to-date repertoire through performances staged as part of the 2nd Beyoğlu Culture Road Festival, 1st Capital City Culture Road Festi- val and 4th Bodrum Kaleiçi Events organised by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. World-famous ensembles and artists have been hosted in these festivals organised by the General Directorate of State Opera and Ballet. Each perfor- mance has been watched with great appreciation and interest by national and international art lov- ers. These festivals, held uninterruptedly every year, were seen by approximately 50 thousand viewers, with 37 performances in 2019 before the pandemic. However, due to the global pandemic in 2020, they were presented to the audience, at half capacity, in accordance with the pandemic conditions and de- termined hygiene rules. A scene from the ballet "The Three Musketeers" 298 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T he art of Meddah, which was formed as a result of the development of the storytell- ing tradition that has existed in Turks since Central Asia by combining with Islamic culture, took its final form in the 16th century. The most developed type of traditional Turkish theatre, the "Orta Oyunu (Middle Show)", which has great sim- ilarities with the Italian folk theatre "Commedia Dell'arte" of the Renaissance period, was formed by the combination of local theatrical elements such as Karagöz, Puppetry and Meddah, experi- enced its golden age in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and competed for a long time with the Western model theatre adopted during the West- ernisation during the Tanzimat period, which started in 1839. With Tanzimat reform era, written text was intro- duced in theatre and Turkish writers started to write plays in addition to translations and adap- tations of foreign works. In this process, the one- act comedy 'Şair Evlenmesi' written by Şinasi is considered to be the first written play of Turkish theatre. Theatre buildings were built and private theatre companies were established in many dis- tricts of Istanbul, especially in Çırağan, Yıldız and Dolmabahçe Palaces, and in cities such as İzmir, Bursa, Adana and Ankara. The conservatory established in Istanbul in 1914 under the name "Darülbedayi-i Osmaniye" had a significant impact on the development of Turkish theatre. "Darülbedayi-i Osmaniye" gave its first per- formance on 20 January 1916 with the play adapted into Turkish by Hüseyin Suat from Emile Fabre un- der the title "Çürük Temel"; Muhsin Ertuğrul won great success with his role in this play. The first actors of Darülbedayi were Behzat Budak, Fikret Sadi, Ahmet Muhsin Ertuğrul, Raşit Rıza, İ. Galip Arcan, Neyyire Neyir, who later went on to make their imprint on our country's theatre scene. The first significant contribution to transforming the theatre into a modern art form in the Repub- lican era was made by the famous actor Muhsin Ertuğrul. He became the head of Darülbedayi in 1927. In 1931, Darülbedayi was affiliated to the Mu- nicipality of Istanbul, and in 1934 it was renamed 'Istanbul City Theatre'. Türkiye's first 'Children's A scene from the play 'Sakarca' THEATRE 300 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Theatre' was also established here in 1935 with the initiatives of Muhsin Ertuğrul. The foundation of the State Conservatory was laid by Atatürk, who emphasised the idea of a State Conservatory that would reveal and develop the talent and creativi- ty of Turkish youth. Thus, the Ankara State Con- servatory was opened in 1936, and in 1941, when it graduated its first students, the Theatre of Prac- tise was established. In 1949, the 'Establishment Law' of the State Theatre and Opera was enacted. When Muhsin Ertuğrul came to the State Theatre as a General Director, the Third Theatre and the Chamber Theatre were opened in Ankara after the Grand Theatre and the Küçük (Small) Theatre. During this period (1957), the Ahmet Vefik Paşa Theatre in Bursa began to present its first plays to its audience. This period can easily be regarded as the beginning of what is described as the 'golden years' in State Theatres. Muhsin Ertuğrul left in 1958, and Cüneyt Gökçer took over the task of general director that would go down in the history of the State Theatres, the first period of which lasted twenty years. In the sum- mer of 1960, the State Theatre, directed by Cüneyt Gökçer, participated in the activities of the Theatre of Nations in Paris with the plays "King Oedipus" and "Hürrem Sultan"; in September 1961, it went to Athens and performed "King Oedipus" and "The Ears of Midas"; in June 1964, it went to Paris again and participated in the Shakespeare Festival of the Theatre of Nations with "Twelfth Night"; in Sep- tember 1968, it performed "Kahvede Şenlik Var" and "Henry IV" in Yugoslavia in September 1968, and "Henry IV" was a great success at the Interna- tional Venice Theatre Festival. In this way, for the first time in the history of Turkish Theatre, he suc- ceeded in attracting the global theatre's attention and won the appreciation of foreign critics with his performances in the Turkish language in interna- tional centres. Cüneyt Gökçer elevated the artistic work of the State Theatre through the productions he presented with foreign directors he invited from Europe, as well as the many works he staged and starred in. During this period, for the first time, highly magnificent musicals were produced on the stages of the State Theatres. "Kiss Me Kate", "My Fair Lady", "Don Quixote, the Last Knight in La Mancha", and "Fiddler on the Roof" musicals were performed for years. Big productions were main- ly staged in the Grand Theatre, while mostly local productions were presented in Anatolian tours. In 1966, the State Opera was separated from the State Theatre. In 1971, the State Theatres were transferred to the Ministry of Culture. Since 1971, the State Theatre has been operating as a Gener- al Directorate with legal entity under the Minis- try of Culture and Tourism, reaching its audience through theatre directorates in various provinces. New regional theatres, including Edirne and Kayseri State Theatres, continued to be added to the State Theatres. A total capacity of 19,442 seats was achieved in 54 active theatres, and a total ca- pacity of 29,582 seats was achieved in 81 active and inactive theatres. The construction of the Atatürk Cultural Centre in Istanbul was completed and in- augurated. Within the scope of the 70th anniversa- ry of the establishment of the State Theatre, a book covering the history of the State Theatre, the first opening play of each stage and the festival was A scene from the play 'The Ears of Midas'. 301 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD prepared. A documentary on the State Theatres was produced through interviews with theatre art- ists who were cultural heritage living in cities such as Ankara, Istanbul and İzmir. The documentary was shared with institutions and participants at a special screening organised in these cities. Special incentive payments were made to the au- thors whose plays were staged for the first time on the stages of the State Theatres, first with the con- tributions of the Ministry of Development and then from its budget within the framework of the decree issued by the Presidency of the Republic, and pre- sented to the authors at a ceremony in the Küçük Theatre in Ankara. In addition, workshops were established in the dramatic writing departments of universities to enable local writers to write high quality plays. The plays studied there were staged on the stages of State Theatres with world pre- mieres. During the COVID-19 pandemic that affected the world, local plays were presented to the audience on the social media platforms of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism State Theatres. Local authors' plays were specially footage on the stages of the State Theatres and were presented to the audience on these platforms. In collaboration with TRT-2, plays were broadcast for the first time. In addition, open-air and Truck Theatre events were held con- sidering pandemic measures. Within the financial and logistical support programme initiated by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 2020, more than 1000 theatre companies were allocated State Theatres stages annually. During this period, the State Theatre's play works and rehearsals contin- ued in compliance with the measures. On 27 March 2022, World Theatre Day, performanc- es were held in 81 provinces for the first time togeth- er with private theatres. Within the framework of the Istanbul Culture Road and Capital City Culture Road events organised by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, stage allocation and participation in plays were ensured. In addition, two national and six international festivals that could not carried out during the pandemic were re-organised. In addition, international and national festivals such as International Balkan Countries Theatre Festival, State Theatres - Sabanci International Adana Theatre Festival, Orhan Asena Local Plays Theatre Festival, Thousand Breaths One Voice" In- ternational Turkish Theatre Producing Countries Festival, Little Ladies Little Gentlemen Interna- tional Children's Theatre Festival, International Black Sea Theatre Festival, Akdamar Children and Youth Theatre Festival, International Theatre Fes- tival are held. With the Truck Theatre, the most remote corners of the country were visited, and plays were per- formed in schools and open spaces. Activities such as Truck Theatre, Theatre on Duty and Open Air Theatre continued during the summer. Within the framework of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic, a playwriting com- petition on the theme of "Women in the 100th Year of the Republic" was organized. The competition was announced in early 2021, and the results were A scene from the World Theatre Day performance, March 27, 2022. 302 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD announced in March 2022. On 16 May 2022, a spe- cial ceremony held at the Ankara Küçük Theatre, incentive awards were presented to contestants and the writers whose works were performed for the first time at the State Theatres. Since its foundation, State Theatres have been working hard to bring the art of theatre to every corner of Anatolia, not only in the big cities where it has been institutionalized, have received awards at international festivals following contemporary theatre by institutionalizing academic theatre acting, and continue on its way to developing our national theatre with the importance it attaches to local writers. Moreover, as one of the largest state theatres in Türkiye and abroad, with an average of 120 new plays per year (200 on average with on- going plays), it significantly contributes to Turkish culture by showing extraordinary performance. Private Theatres 'Küçük Sahne', founded by Muhsin Ertuğrul in 1951 after leaving the State Theatre, trained many art- ists. Çığır Sahne, Cep Theatre, Muammer Karaca Theatre and Istanbul Operetta were among the other theatre companies of the period that attract- ed attention. In the 1960s, theatre activities became widespread with the increase in amateur theatres. Founded in 1955, Dormen Theatre was among the successful theatre companies of the 1960s in terms of play se- lection, working order and management. Founded in 1961, Oraloğlu Theatre and Gülriz Sururi-Engin Cezzar Company, founded in 1962, is the company that continued their plays with a certain level of art until recently. Founded in 1963 and continuing its plays to this day, Ankara Art Theatre has gained importance with its theatre management and the artistic value of its plays. Many private theatres established between 1960-1970 also included chil- dren's theatre. In these years, many private chil- dren's theatres were also established. Muammer Karaca Theatre in Istanbul, which opened its curtains in 1982, Çolpan İlhan & Sadri Alışık Theatre, Ferhan Şensoy Orta Oyuncular and Beşiktaş Cultural Centre (BKM) are among the private theatre companies of recent years. Ankara Sanat Theatre in Ankara, Kent Oyuncuları in Is- tanbul, Dostlar Theatre directed by Genco Erkal, Kent Oyuncuları of the Kenter brothers, Ali Poy- razoğlu Theatre, Nejat Uygur Theatre are some of the theatre companies that have survived from the 1960s and 70s. In accordance with the Regulation on Aids to Pro- jects of Private Theatres, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism provides support to private theatre projects every year in order to support Turkish theatre in all its aspects. Supports are significantly increased every year, thus making significant con- tributions to the development of Turkish theatre. 303 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Scenes from the Shakespeare Festival 'Twelfth Night' performance 304 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD E very country, without a doubt, has a cin- ematic past. Fuat Uzkınay's film on the demolition of the Ayestefanos Monument, filmed on November 14, 1914, is regarded as "the first Turkish film shot," and Fuat Uzkınay as "the first Turkish filmmaker." Turkish Cinema between 1922 - 1950 With the proclamation of the Republic, there has been a severe change in the structure of Turkish society. The beginning of the Republican regime and the implementation of unprecedented re- forms led to changes in almost every aspect of so- ciety. The period in Turkish cinema, structured by civilian production companies from 1922 to 1949, is called the Private Production Company Peri- od. Muhsin Ertuğrul's duty was to direct Turkish films, which consisted of theatre-based works. Following the end of World War II in 1945, Turkish cinema increased its film production. Film struc- tures, on the other hand, took on a specific form as a result of audience preferences, or econom- ic considerations. Egyptian films that generated substantial box office revenue, American adven- ture and comedy films, literary adaptations, and historical films originating from Turkish cinema's roots all contributed to a particular understanding of cinema, and the productions of the subsequent years acted on these central themes. Turkish Cinema between 1950 - 1960 Since the 1950s, increased film production has indicated that Turkish cinema will become an in- dustry that employs more people and creates more films. Increasing productions laid the foundations for 1960-75, which can be described as the Golden Age of Turkish Cinema in terms of production. Turkish Cinema between 1960-1970 The 1960s, the years when the production efficien- cy of Turkish cinema reached its highest point, were also the years when Turkish films of high level and quality were released one after another and assumed a national identity. Domestic film production, which had been increasing steadily since the 1950s, continued to rise in the 1960s in re- sponse to the increasing demand of the audience. Turkish cinema started to produce colour films in 1963. From 1967 onwards, rapidly increasing col- CINEMA 306 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD our films dominated the market. Another charac- teristic of the 1960s in Türkiye was that Turkish cinema was ahead of American cinema. As cine- ma became a more profitable sector in the 1960s, the emergence of new producers and production companies was inevitable. In 1966, Turkish cine- ma ranked 4th in feature film production with 241 films. The 1960s are regarded as a golden age for Turkish cinema due to its filming, production, and distribution strength. Turkish Cinema between 1970-1980 In the structural development of Turkish cinema in the 1970s, external factors played a more signif- icant role than internal factors. Between 1971 and 1980, Türkiye underwent radical changes in many areas, especially in the political and economic fields. Important political, economic and socio- logical changes deeply affected the cinema sector, as in every industry. For example, the increasing interest in television drove the masses away from cinema, movie theaters started to close down, and the cinema sector entered a recession period. In 1977, the Department of Cinema was established under the Ministry of Culture to prepare legal reg- ulations for Turkish cinema, organise film weeks abroad, and produce subtitle copies of films to be included in festivals abroad. Turkish Cinema between 1980-1990 As always, the country's economic, legal and po- litical processes were reflected in Turkish cine- ma. The technical revolution experienced by the government, thanks to its increasing imports, led to significant changes in visual communication tools. In this period, the video market was formed. The cinema audience completed the transition from "families" to "individuals", the "star system" collapsed from the 1980s onwards, and a transfor- mation took place from films that were referred to according to the leading actor to movies that was referred to according to the director. The state tried to regulate the cinema sector through direct interventions, and the the Law of Cinema, Video and Music Works of Art was enact- ed in 1986. As a result, film festivals began to create their audience, and Turkish films started to com- pete in foreign festivals and win awards. Turkish Cinema between 1990-2000 The Turkish film industry entered the 1990s in a state of crisis. During this period, less than ten films were produced per year. Movie theaters closed one by one, and private televisions opened one after the other. After 1995, video, VCD, and DVD formats became widespread and alternative viewing areas emerged. A young generation of di- rectors emerged in the 1990s, and this generation, which had previously made a living with short films and screenplays, brought a breath of fresh air to Turkish cinema. Turkish Cinema After the 2000s The audience profile changed, and significant changes began to be observed in the narratives of filmmakers. The technical level of Turkish films reached world standards, and the cinema was dominated by educated young people trained at film schools. Turkish films' budgets started to reach millions of dollars, and the audience num- bers began to reach millions. In 2004, Law No. 5224, "Law on the Evaluation, Classification and Support of Cinema Films," was enacted. This law was a turning point for Turkish cinema, with a significant increase in film produc- tion and audience numbers. The number of view- ers increased from 23.5 million in 2002 to 59 mil- lion in 2019. Also >> Semih Kaplanoğlu won the "Golden Bear Award" at the Berlin Film Festival for his film "Honey" (2010), 307 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD >> Nuri Bilge Ceylan won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival for his film "Winter Sleep" (2014), >> Mustafa Kara won the "Best Director Award" at the 28th Tokyo International Film Festival for his film "Cold of Kalandar" (2015), >> Semih Kaplanoğlu won the "Best Film Award" at the 30th Tokyo International Film Festival for his film "Grain" (2017), >> Tolga Karaçelik won the "Best Film Award" at the Sundance Film Festival for his film "But- terflies" (2018), >> Erdem Tepegöz won the "Jury’s Special Award" at the 42nd Moscow Film Festival with his film "In the Shadows" (2020), >> Emre Kayiş won the "FIPRESCI Award" at the 46th Toronto Film Festival for his film "Anato- lian Leopard" (2021), >> Selman Nacar won the "Best Film Award" at the Turin Film Festival for his film "Between Two Dawns" (2021), >> Maryna Er Gorbach won the "Best Director Award" at the Sundance Film Festival for her film "Klondike" (2022), The increasing number of viewers and films in recent years, the diversity in production and the awards won in the international arena create a promising vision for our cinema. Cinema Box Office Data Turkish cinema, which has shown significant de- velopment in recent years, has dramatically in- creased its number of production and audience. In 2002, while the number of domestic films re- leased was 9, this number reached 150 in 2019. In addition, the number of viewers increased from 23.5 million in 2002 to 59 million in 2019. The film 'Winter Sleep', which won Nuri Bilge Ceylan the Palme d'Or in 2014 308 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The number of domestic film viewers, which was 2 million in 2002, reached 33 million in 2019. The rate of domestic film viewership, which was 9% in 2002, reached 56% in 2019, and our country has ranked first in Europe in this field for eight consec- utive years. As of 2022, there are 412 cinema cineplexes, 2661 movie theaters and 309,762 cinema seats in Tür- kiye. Istanbul Cinema Museum Istanbul Cinema Museum, designed to transfer the aesthetics of cinema to new generations with its past and present by embracing the historical Atlas Cinema in Beyoğlu, the heart of Turkish cin- ema, was put into service in 2021. The historical Atlas Building, which was con- structed in the 1870s during the reign of Sultan Abdulaziz, was restored to its original form over a two-year period. Furthermore, the Atlas Cinema, which has been in operation since 1948, has been completely renovated from the stage to the seats, from the sound system to the foyer. In addition to the collection which tells the history of cinema from the past to the present, essential pieces of world cinema and unique details of mas- terpieces from Turkish cinema are exhibited at the Istanbul Cinema Museum. Visitors can view the posters and information of over 8000 films about Turkish cinema using the newly created memory pool. Designed as a museum that "educates, entertains and welcomes", the Istanbul Cinema Museum will significantly contribute to the cultural life of Istan- bul as one of the important stops of the Beyoğlu Culture Route Project, and serve as an important tourism destination. Istanbul Cinema Museum Restoration Istanbul Cinema Museum 309 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 310 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD D evelopments in Türkiye regarding TV se- ries coincided with the 1990s when com- mercial broadcasting began, the number of channels increased, and programmes diversi- fied. In these years, viewer interest became evi- dent, expanded and intensified.The demand for television material has expanded in tandem with the increasing number of channels and view- ers, and serials have emerged as the best method to meet the demand. Since the beginning of the 2000s, the content of Turkish TV series has en- riched, and visual quality and technical level have improved and reached a high level. The first Turkish series to be exported interna- tionally was the 1975 TRT series "Aşk-ı Memnu", which was sold to France in 1981. It is generally agreed that the export of Turkish TV series began with "Deli Yürek" in the 2000s. Sold to Kazakh- stan in 2001, "Deli Yürek" was the first Turkish TV series to be licensed abroad and achieved a rare success by being broadcast ten times in Kazakh- stan. In 2006, the sale of the TV series "Gümüş" and "Ihlamurlar Altında" to the Dubai-based MBC (Middle East Broadcasting Center) and the in- tense interest in both TV series became one of the turning points in Turkish TV series exports. The first Turkish series to be exported internationally was the 1975 TRT series "Aşk-ı Memnu", which was sold to France in 1981. TURKISH TV SERIES 312 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Over a hundred TV series are produced in Türkiye ev- ery year. The series are exported to 152 countries. It is estimated that Turkish TV series, which are market- ed worldwide, from the USA to Chile, China to Rus- sia, already have 600 million viewers. Türkiye ranks among the top 5 countries in the world in TV series exports. The success of Turkish TV series is not limited to ex- ports but also high-quality productions. Haluk Bilg- iner, the lead actor of Ay Yapım's series ""Şahsiyet" (Persona), won the "Best Actor" award in 2019 at the International Emmy Awards, which is one of the most prestigious awards in the television industry, with series from 18 countries participating in 11 cat- egories. Again in 2017, the series "Kara Sevda" starring Burak Özçivit and Neslihan Atagül, won the Best In- ternational Series award at the Emmy Awards. Our series, which is broadcast in Turkish in many countries, contributes significantly to the promotion of our language, and the number of individuals who wish to study Turkish increases daily. The regular broadcasting of many TV series all over the world contributes to the establishment and development of Türkiye's image. Turkish TV series exports significantly impact other sectors, particularly film tourism. Tourism statistics, visits to filming locations, and recent wedding tour- ism all demonstrate the impact of our TV series on the increase in the number of tourists travelling to our country, which has a great tourism potential. 313 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 314 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Prominent Festivals of Türkiye T urkish festivals are fascinating and unique because Türkiye has been host to an as- tounding variety of civilisations and cul- tures throughout its history. Art, music, dance, theatre and film festivals; traditional festivals; gastronomy festivals; lifestyle festivals and mega sports events and competitions are held through- out the year, attracting thousands of festival lov- ers worldwide. National culture and arts festivals are organised in almost every city in Türkiye, and international culture and arts festivals are organ- ised in major cities such as Istanbul, Ankara, İz- mir and Antalya. Istanbul is the province with the highest number of festivals. Istanbul has made its mark on the Turkish and global stages with a new interna- tional festival in 2021. The Beyoğlu Culture Route Project, developed by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism to contribute to Istanbul's international brand value through its historical, cultural, archi- tectural, economic, and touristic assets, was car- ried out from 30 October to 14 November 2021, with over 1,000 artists participating at 60 differ- ent locations. The Beyoğlu Culture Route Project, brings toghether many different disciplines, from archi- tecture to literature, from painting to music, from design to theatre, on the route from Atatürk Cul- tural Center to Galataport, which includes impor- tant cultural and tourism investments such as the Atatürk Cultural Center rebuilt by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, restored Galata Tower, İstanbul Cinema Museum (Atlas Cinema), Galata Mevlevi Lodge Museum, Mehmet Akif Memori- al House, Tarık Zafer Tunaya Cultural Center, as well as many historical, cultural and architectural values such as Galataport, Grand Pera (Emek Cin- ema), Garibaldi Scene. Thus, cultural and artistic richness has been gathered under one roof by en- suring the unity of art-artists-art lovers in every branch. The Beyoğlu Culture Festival, which drew 7.8 million local and foreign visitors in 2021 and lasted 16 days, became a tradition, and the second one was held between May 28 and June 12, 2022. International Buyukcekmece Culture and Art Festival FESTIVALS 316 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The Culture Route Festivals, which aim to pro- mote varied cultural experiences while drawing attention to the cultural, architectural, and histor- ical heritage of the cities with routes, have extend- ed across Türkiye and are now hosted in Ankara, Çanakkale, and Diyarbakır following Istanbul. Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts (İKSV) is a member of the General Assembly of the Turk- ish National Commission for UNESCO.İKSV reg- ularly organises the Istanbul Festivals of Music, Film, Theatre and Jazz, the Istanbul Biennial, Ley- la Gencer Voice Competition, autumn film week Filmekimi and realises one-off events throughout the year. The 17th Istanbul Biennial, which is held every two years, was unable to take place in 2021 owing to the pandemic and will now take place between September 17 and November 20, 2022. The 24th "Flying Broom International Women's Film Festival," which has been organised since 1998 and is Türkiye's first women's film festival, took place between May 27 and June 3, 2021, with online screenings and at festival venues on June 4-11, 2021. "International Ankara Music Festival", the long- est-running international event of the capital Ankara, which hosts many important local and foreign names every year, is a member of the Eu- ropean Festivals Association. The historical CSO building, with a capacity of 600 people, which has hosted the Presidential Symphony Orchestra (CSO) since October 29, 1961, has reopened its doors to art lovers after the restoration. Following the opening concert on 29 October 2021, CSO Ada Ankara hosted the music world's leading local and foreign names. It hosted the London Philharmonic Orchestra, which made its debut in Türkiye on October 30, and jazz musi- cians and Grammy Award-winning trumpet play- er Chris Botti on October 31. Organised by the Ministry of Culture and Tour- ism for the first time between May 28 and June 12, 2022, the Ankara Culture Route Festival brought together local and foreign artists with art lovers through a wide range of events held in Ankara's historical and cultural venues. İzmir Culture, Arts and Education Foundation (İKSEV), which brings important festivals to İz- mir, organises the International İzmir Festival and İzmir European Jazz Festival every year. The International İzmir Festival, which includes mu- sic, ballet, theatre and opera in its programme, is a member of the European Festivals Association. The 29th "İzmir European Jazz Festival", which brings together prominent jazz artists from Eu- rope and Türkiye and aims to spread this culture to large masses, was held between March 3- April 2, 2022. It brought together jazz fans from İzmir with jazz artists from Switzerland, Slovakia, Ger- many, and Italy. The "Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival", which was held in the 2000-year-old Ancient Aspendos Theatre with extraordinary acoustics, has become a festival where many world-renowned ensembles want to perform and was accepted as a member of the European Festivals Association (EFA) in 2003. The festival, which will be held for the 29th time between Sep- tember 10-25, 2022, brings together thousands of art lovers annually with many opera and ballet 13th International Istanbul Opera Festival 317 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD works performed by local and foreign ensembles. Organised since 1994, the festival is a member of the European Festivals Association, one of the most respected organisations in Europe. Art lovers have the opportunity to watch many distinguished performing arts festivals in differ- ent cities of Türkiye. Some of the prominent fes- tivals organised by the Turkish State Opera and Ballet include Istanbul International Opera Fes- tival, International Aspendos Opera and Ballet Festival, International Ephesus Opera and Ballet Festival, Bodrum International Ballet Festival, Gaziantep International Opera and Ballet Festi- val, Trabzon Opera and Ballet Days and Eskişehir Opera and Ballet Days. The 59th "Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival", the oldest film festival in Türkiye, will be held be- tween October 1-8,2022. The festival is the Oscar of Turkish cinema. Other prestigious and well-es- tablished film festivals that bring together film lovers in Türkiye are the Istanbul Film Festival, Ankara International Film Festival, Adana Inter- national Golden Boll Film Festival and !f Istanbul Independent Film Festival. Türkiye is also a popular destination for inter- national music festivals and concerts. Numerous music festivals are held throughout the country, bringing together musicians from various genres ranging from jazz to electronic music. Istanbul Jazz Festival, Akbank Jazz Festival, İzmir Europe- an Jazz Festival, International Ankara Jazz Festi- val, Bozcaada Jazz Festival, Bodrum Jazz Festival, Urla Jazz Festival, International Akra Jazz Festi- val and Kaş Jazz Festival host Turkish and inter- national jazz artists every year. Chill-Out Festival, Electronica Festival, Sónar Istanbul, SunSplash, One Love Festival and Cappadox are other lead- ing music festivals that take place all year round in Istanbul and Türkiye's holiday resorts such as İzmir, Bodrum, Antalya, Cappadocia, Bozcaada. The festival events, which began with the Beyoğlu Culture Route Festival organised by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 2021 and continued with the Ankara Culture Route Festival in Ankara and the Beyoğlu Culture Road Festival, which was held for the second time in 2022, will be contin- ued with festivals to be held in Ankara, Istanbul, Diyarbakır, and Çanakkale in the second half of 2022 and will be diversified in the coming years. TEKNOFEST TEKNOFEST Aviation, Space and Technology Festival is organised by the Ministry of Industry and Technology and Turkish Technology Team Foundation. It aims to promote and develop Tür- kiye's national technologies and raise awareness of people in this field. Organised in partnership with institutions and organisations of great im- portance in the field of national technology in our country, this festival is the world's largest avia- tion, space and technology festival. The festival is open to local and foreign partic- ipants and is free of charge. The world's largest technology competitions are held at the festival. Furthermore, Turkish Stars and SOLOTÜRK aero- batic teams, as well as aircraft produced with na- tional skills such as AKINCI, HÜRKUŞ, and ATAK helicopters, perform at TEKNOFEST. Visitors can also experience various technologies and simula- tion experience areas and access detailed infor- mation about the latest technologies. In addition to educational activities such as planetarium, multiple workshops and seminars, entertaining activities such as main stage concerts, vertical wind tunnel and youth areas are also organised within the scope of TEKNOFEST. TEKNOFEST, which was held for the first time at Istanbul Airport in 2018, has achieved the suc- cess of being the 2nd most significant festival in the world in terms of the number of daily partic- ipants and the 3rd most prominent festival in the 318 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD world in terms of the total number of participants with 550,000 visitors. TEKNOFEST 2019, held at Istanbul Atatürk Airport, became the world's larg- est technology festival with 1,720,000 visitors. In 2020, TEKNOFEST, held for the first time outside of Istanbul in Gaziantep, but was closed to visitors due to the COVID-19 pandemic, became the most talked about event of the year on social media. TEKNOFEST, the festival of records since its first year, is held every two years in a different province of Anatolia outside Istanbul. Traditional Festivals Turkish traditional festivals and events are top-rated in Türkiye's cultural life, attracting lo- cals and visitors curious about the country and its traditions. These unique festivals that take place in different parts of the country include Kırkpınar Oil Wrestling, a 600-year-old traditional sporting event held in Edirne in June every year, and the Hıdrellez Festival, a celebration of the arrival of spring, held in many different cities in Türkiye on May 6 every year, and the Semazen Show (Şeb-i Arus), which is held in Konya every December to commemorate Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi, one of the world's greatest philosophers and founder of Mevlevism, and offers a tremendous spiritual ex- perience with special performances by dervishes. On the occasion of the 700th anniversary of the death of Yunus Emre, one of the essential Turkish language and culture figures, UNESCO declared 2021 as the "Year of Yunus Emre and Turkish". On this occasion, comprehensive communication ac- tivities were carried out throughout the year, and various commemorative events were organised in Türkiye and abroad. Gastronomy Festivals Türkiye has a marvellous gastronomic history. Turkish cuisine is one of the most diverse and affluent in the world. Türkiye's unique location, combined with the migration of Turks from Cen- tral Asia to Europe over the centuries, has shaped the identity of its gastronomy. Türkiye's diversity of fauna and flora has also contributed to various regional cuisines. Türkiye's rich gastronomy can be seen in the In- ternational Adana Taste Festival in Adana; Gas- troAntep International Gastronomy Festival in Gaziantep; Bodrum Tangerine Harvest Festival and Slow Cheese Festival in Bodrum; İzmir Gas- trofest, İzmir Coffee Festival, Alaçatı Herb Festi- val, International Urla Artichoke Festival in İzmir; Bozcaada Squid Festival and Bozcaada Grape Harvest Festival in Bozcaada, Çanakkale; Gas- troAntalya International Gastronomy Festival and International Antalya Street Food Festival in Antalya; 24Kitchen International Food Festival, 101 Tastes of Istanbul Festival and Istanbul Cof- fee Festival in Istanbul; and Ürgüp Grape Harvest Festival in Cappadocia. Adana Gastronomy Festival Semazen (Whirling Dervish) Show 319 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD International Balkan Countries Theatre Fes- tival - Bursa State Theatre In Bursa, under the leadership of the State The- atres, the "International Balkan Countries Thea- tre Festival" has been organised every year in the spring on March 8, International Women's Day, since 2014. The participating countries in the fes- tival are Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, North Macedo- nia, Romania, Slovakia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Ser- bia, Croatia, Montenegro and Kosovo. The festival hosted the plays of well-known theatres of the Balkans such as I.L. Caragiale Bucharest National Theatre, Arad Ioan Slavici Classical Theatre, Sofia Ivan Vazov National Theatre, Belgrade National Theatre, Sarajevo MESS Theatre, Kosovo National Theatre. Our compatriots in the Balkans are making efforts to keep the consciousness of Turkishness and our language alive by performing Turkish theat- er. Groups such as Bulgaria- Kardzhali Kadriye Latifova Theatre Music Centre; North Macedonia- Skopje Turkish Theatre; Kosovo- Nafiz Gürcüali Turkish Theatre are hosted at festivals in Türkiye. The festival also undertakes the function of an im- portant bridge that forms the solid foundations of relations with the Balkans and brings all Balkan countries together by using the unifying power of art. Sabanci International Adana Theatre Festi- val - Adana State Theatre The festival started in 1998 with the cooperation of the Sabancı Foundation and the General Di- rectorate of State Theatres and has continued to A Scene from the Play 'Maestro' at Bursa International Balkan Countries Theatre Festival Main Culture and Art Activities April 1-June 29 İstanbul International Istanbul Film Festival April 23 Ankara International April 23 Children's Festival August 3-4 Manisa Traditional Manisa Mesir Macunu Festival August 3-4 Nevşehir Commemoration Ceremonies of Hacı Bektaş Veli August 18-September 16 İstanbul International Istanbul Music Festival August 19-31 İzmir International İzmir Festival September 1-24 İstanbul International Istanbul Jazz Festival September 4-23 Antalya Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival October 2-9 Antalya Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival November 4-12 Ankara Ankara International Film Festival December 3-13 İzmir International İzmir Theater Festival December 7-17 Konya Mevlana Commemoration Ceremonies December 22 İzmir İzmir International Humor Festival (*) Calendar year 2021 320 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD develop until today. Starting in 1998 at the nation- al level, the festival soon gained an international character. Theatre groups from many countries, including Russia, Germany, France, Bulgaria, Greece, Japan, Serbia and Montenegro, Australia, Egypt, Swit- zerland, Denmark, Kyrgyzstan, Romania, Slove- nia, TRNC, Israel, Korea, Moldova, Poland, Spain, Ireland, Italy, Cuba, Tyva, Lithuania, Chile, Neth- erlands, Argentina, Belgium, China and Kosovo have participated in the festival. Orhan Asena Turkish Plays Theatre Festival- Diyarbakır State Theatre Starting in 2003, the Orhan Asena Theatre Fes- tival is one of the steps taken to make the Meso- potamia Region, which has been home to many civilisations for thousands of years and has a very colourful cultural texture, a centre of culture and arts once again. The festival pioneers the stage presentation of internationally recognised clas- sics and enables the staging of original, rich and unique works. "Thousand Breaths One Voice" International Theatre Festival of Turkic Countries- Konya State Theatre Established in 1997, Konya State Theatre organ- ised the "Thousand Breaths One Voice" Interna- tional Theatre Festival of Turkic Countries to contribute to the cultural development of the de- veloping and changing Konya province, pioneer change, and introduce the spiritual tolerance and contribution of the city of Mevlana to different civilisations. The festival is a light shining on the Turkish lan- guage through the window of art, organised with the idea of honouring, enriching and disseminat- ing the Turkish language. It has the quality of a proclamation declaring this in the most elegant language. Until today, theatre groups from many countries, including Kyrgyzstan, TRNC, Kosovo, Macedonia, Crimea-Tatar, Chuvashistan, Turkmenistan, Azer- baijan, Tatarstan, Kazakhstan, Moldova-Gagauz- ia, Bashkortostan and Bulgaria have participated in the festival. Little Ladies Little Gentlemen International Children's Theatre Festival-Ankara State Theatre The Festival, held for the 15th time in 2019, was inspired by Atatürk's words for Turkish children and was established to contribute to the April 23rd National Sovereignty and Children's Day with "theatrical art" and to instill a love of theater in children. In the festival, which hosts many theater groups from various countries such as Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Singapore, Belgium, Italy, Russia, Ger- many, TRNC, Israel, Romania, Serbia, Montene- gro, France, Switzerland, Spain, Lithuania, Lux- embourg, Netherlands, Slovenia, England, Cuba, Ukraine, Croatia, Kosovo, Poland, Canada, China, Chile, Sri Lanka, and Argentina, children's plays covering different genres and techniques such as puppetry, shadow play, dance theater, opera, ballet, and street theater are exhibited and social responsibility projects are implemented and vari- ous workshops are held. International Black Sea Theatre Festival - Trabzon State Theatre First held in 2000, the festival was initially or- ganised with the participation of the countries bordering the Black Sea (Georgia, Moldova, Rus- sia, Romania, Ukraine), and in 2006, the festival's reach was broadened by inviting countries from all around the world. With the participation of many countries such as Bulgaria, Kazakhstan, Greece, Iran, France, Slove- nia, People's Republic of China, Ecuador, Germa- 321 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ny, Ireland, Spain, Israel, Switzerland, Italy, Ta- tarstan, Japan, Netherlands, Indonesia, Hungary, Norway, Poland, TRNC, Latvia, England, Afghan- istan, Macedonia, Macedonia, Brazil, Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Festival has been gradually enriched with workshops, interviews, conferenc- es and exhibitions with world-class directors and playwrights. Akdamar Children and Youth Theatre Festi- val-Van State Theatre The Festival is organised for and with the partic- ipation of elementary school students from Van and its surrounding districts. The plays performed by the children today are the fruits of the free theatre courses organised by the State Theatre staff for teachers as a joint pro- ject of the Governorship of Van and the Directo- rate of National Education. Teachers, who passed through a rigorous training process in the difficult conditions of Van and received their certificates, established theatre groups in their schools and trained students. Each school participates in the festival with a play prepared by its theatre group. The Akdamar tour, which has become an annual tradition, is held as part of the festival. International Theatre Festival-Antalya State Theatre The State Theaters launched the Antalya Inter- national Theater Festival, which was held for the first time in 2010, with the aim of showcasing contemporary theatre on historical stages. It is not possible to sperate tourism from culture and culture from art. Antalya is one of the few cities in our country and the world where these three phenomena find their place at the highest level. "State Theatres, Antalya International Theatre Festival" is the reflection of these thoughts on the stage. The spirit of the festival is "performing con- temporary theatre on historic stages." In keeping with this concept, the 10th festival kicked off at the Aspendos Antique Theatre. The festival has set out with the aim of sharing Türkiye's historical, artistic texture on an international platform. In addition to the State Theatres, the festival has hosted theatre groups and professionals from many countries, including Germany, Russia, Georgia, Spain, Italy, Cuba, Slovakia, China, Swit- zerland, Romania, and the Netherlands. A Scene from the Wizard of Oz Performance at the International Black Sea Theatre Festival Scenes from International Theatre Festival Performances 322 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD E very year, Türkiye is represented as a pavilion in international tourism fairs determined by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Sector representati- ves who wish to participate in the fair are given a table in the Turkish pavilion and the opportunity to meet with the visitors. Looking at the last five years of fair atten- dance, it is clear that the number of fairs at- tended has decreased in recent years due to the pandemic. In 2018, the Ministry of Cul- ture and Tourism and its Representative Offices Abroad participated in 99 different specialised tourism fairs abroad. In 2019, this number decreased to 27. Before 2020, relevant cultural and tourism consultancies carried out fair participation organisations. However, with the establis- hment of Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency (TGA), TGA and the relevant consultancies started to coordina- te fair organisations. In 2020, as countries closed their borders to international flights due to the CO- VID-19 pandemic, eight of the 16 tourism specialised fairs organised by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism-Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency were held physically, while the remaining eight were held online. In 2021, as the effect of the pandemic gra- dually lifted, online fairs started to be held physically again. In 2021, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism-Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency par- ticipated in four online and 11 physical in- ternational tourism fairs. FAIRS 324 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The 2022 exhibition calendar is as follows, and the ITB Berlin, Vakantiebeurs Utrecht, and UITT Ukraine fairs, all of which were anticipated to be attended, have been cancelled. No Name of the Fair M2 Country City Date 1 VAKANTIEBEURS TOURISM FAIR 300 Holland Utrecht 13 – 16 January 2022 2 FITUR INTERNATIONAL TOURISM FAIR 331 Spain Madrid 19 – 23 January 2022 3 ITB BERLIN 1000 Germany Berlin 9 – 13 March 2022 4 MITT MOSCOW 300 Russia Moscow 15 – 17 March 2022 5 UITT KYIV 304 Ukraine Kyiv 23 – 25 March 2022 6 INTERNATIONAL TOURISM FAIR (ITFA) 120 Serbia Belgrade 24 – 27 March 2022 7 ARABIAN TRAVEL MARKET 414 B.A.E. Dubai 9 – 12 May 2022 8 SATTE NEW DELHI 112 India New Delhi 18 – 20 May 2022 9 IMEX FRANKFURT 188 Germany Frankfurt 31 May – 2 June 2022 10 MATTA FAIR 90 Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 2 – 4 September 2022 11 IMEX AMERICA 93 USA Las Vegas 11 – 13 October 2022 12 INTERNATIONAL GOLF TRAVEL MARKET (IGTM) 100 Italy Rome 17 – 20 October 2022 13 WTM LONDON 600 England London 7 – 9 November 2022 14 TT WARSAW 120 Poland Warsaw 24 – 26 November 2022 15 INTERNATIONAL LUXURIOUS TRAVEL MARKET (ILTM) CANNES 400 France Cannes 5 – 8 December 2022 325 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Tourism Fairs in Türkiye Two major international tourism fairs are organi- zed in Türkiye. Eastern Mediterranean Interna- tional Tourism and Travel Fair (EMITT) held in Istanbul and the Travel Türkiye fair held in İzmir are essential organizations in tourism. Partici- pation is provided in both fairs with the Turkish stand. In addition, the international ACE of MICE fair in the MICE sector is also supported. Congress Tourism The primary goal in the field of congress tourism is to host more international organisations in Türkiye and to make Türkiye one of the leading countries. Exceptional content work has been carried out for congress tourism on the Go Türkiye digital plat- form. All destinations are introduced with their prominent features in this field. In addition to Istanbul, Antalya, İzmir and Cappa- docia, which have the largest share among these destinations, promotional content has been pub- lished to highlight other provinces and regions. Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency team visits 81 provinces, and during these visits, meetings are held with sector stakeholders regarding the MICE sector. Active meetings with congress tourism sector associations and sta- keholders are ongoing. Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency regularly checks the data on Türkiye on the International Congress and Conventions As- sociation (ICCA) website. Work is being carried out to request the necessary corrections and no- tify the international organisations and the afore- mentioned web portal. Due to the pandemic, the ICCA global congress statistics report was not prepared and announced by the International Congress and Conventions Association in 2020 and 2021. Thanks to the national and international events organised, it was emphasised that Istanbul is one of the world's leading destinations in congress tourism and Istanbul's identity as a congress city was promoted. Negotiations for destination pro- motion cooperation agreements with internatio- nal organisations are carried out by the Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency. In 2021, the Türkiye Tourism Promotion and De- velopment Agency actively participated in the most important fairs of the sector, such as TFest Dubai, IMEX Las Vegas, IBTM Barcelona, ILTM Cannes and ICCA Paris Conference, making country presentations and holding meetings with key decision makers. The objective of the Türkiye Tourism Promoti- on and Development Agency for the congress and meeting sector is to ensure that Istanbul and Antalya are among the top 10 cities in the world and Türkiye among the top 10 countries and that congress and meeting tourism spreads to other provinces across Türkiye. 326 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 327 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 328 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T he first museum activities in Türkiye started in the mid- 19th century. In 1846, during the reign of Sultan Abdul- mejid II, the foundation of museology was laid by Ahmet Fethi Pasha, the marshal of Tophane-i Amire, by collecting old artefacts and especially old weapons in Hagia Irene Church. During the Tanzimat period, Hagia Irene Church was renamed as Müze-i Hümayun. Modern museum studies in Türkiye were initiated by the famous painter and museologist Osman Hamdi Bey during the reign of Abdulhamid II and showed a significant development after the proclamation of the Republic. This was based on the importance Atatürk attached to the research and discovery of cultural as- sets and the dissemination of museums throughout the country. At the time of the proclamation of the Republic, there were the Istanbul Archaeological Museums known as the "Asar-ı Atika Museum", the Military Museum established in Hagia Irene, the Evkaf-ı İslamiye Museum located in the imaret of the Süleymani- ye Complex, and branches of the Müze-i Hümayun opened in several major Anatolian cities. MUSEOLOGY Museum Of Painting And Sculpture - Ankara 330 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Topkapı Palace, which was converted into a mu- seum with its contents, was opened to visitors in 1924. In the same year, the Evkaf-ı İslamiye Mu- seum was reorganised as the "Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts", the Mevlana Dervish Lodge in Konya was turned into a museum, and the "Anka- ra Ethnography Museum", the first building de- signed as a museum in the country, was opened to the public. In addition, new museums were es- tablished in Bursa, Adana, Manisa, İzmir, Kayseri, Antalya, Afyon, Bergama and Edirne. With Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's idea of establish- ing an ethnographic museum in the centre, Hittite artefacts were collected from all over the country. Galip Bey, the cultural director of the period, took the first step by transforming the Akkale Bastion, Augustus Temple and Roman Baths of Ankara Castle into a museum. Opened on October 1, 1921 at the Akkale Bastion of Ankara Castle, the "Eti Mu- seum", also known as the "Asar-ı Atika Museum", was restored in 1967 and renamed the Museum of Anatolian Civilisations. There are 210 museums under the General Directorate of Cultural Assets and Museums of the Ministry of Culture and Tour- ism, 337 private museums under the Ministry's supervision and 1586 collectors. In addition, 8 of the 122 tombs operating under the Directorate of Tombs Museum in Istanbul are closed to visitors due to maintenance and repair works. Between 2002 and 2022, a total of 163 museums, includ- ing Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology (Phase I, II and III), Trabzon Sumela Monastery (Phase I, II and III), Istanbul Archaeological Mu- seums Classical Building (Phase I, II), were ren- ovated by carrying out a repair, restoration and exhibition-layout works. A total of 56 museums, including the internationally acclaimed Gazian- tep Zeugma Mosaic Museum, Hatay Archeology Museum, Şanlıurfa Archeology and Haleplibahçe Mosaic Museum, Kars Caucasian Front War His- tory Museum, Çanakkale Troy Museum, Istanbul Memory 15 July, Istanbul Airport Museum, Kah- ramanmaraş Elbistan City Museum, Mehmet Akif Ersoy Memorial House, Ankara 15 July Democra- cy Museum, Muş Museum, Edirne Balkan Wars Museum (Hıdırlık Bastion), Galata Tower and Kilis Alaeddin Yavaşca Museum, were opened for the first time; 18 existing museums such as Adana Museum, Uşak Museum, Kayseri Museum, Mersin Museum, Van Museum and Erzurum Museum started to serve in their newly constructed build- ings. The Kilis Museum (Historical Soap Factory Building) was prepared for opening. A large part of the artefacts that make up the col- lections in the museums belong to the civilisa- tions that came to life in the geography of Türkiye. Eastern art and artefacts from the Turkish-Islam- ic period constitute the second largest group. In addition, there are history museums related to Ottoman history, the War of Independence and the revolutions in the country, which have been restored and preserved as they are. The house where Atatürk was born in Thessa- loniki was built in Ankara in accordance with the original and turned into a museum. The museum, where Atatürk's life and principles are exhibit- ed with information, records and documents, is open to visitors. In addition, the buildings where Atatürk guided the War of Independence and where he was hosted during his visits to various provinces have also been converted into muse- ums. Another group of museums in the country are "Museum Houses" and "Memorial Museums". "Çakırağa Mansion" in Birgi, "Hazeranlar Man- sion" in Amasya, "Ziya Gökalp House" in Diyar- bakır and "Tevfik Fikret Aşiyan House" in Istanbul are some of these museums. Efforts to preserve historical buildings as muse- ums began in the 1930s. Dolmabahçe Palace and the Green Tomb and Muradiye Complex in Bursa are the most important examples of such muse- ums. Many ancient cities in the country have also been organised as archaeological sites. Göbek- litepe, Boğazköy, Ephesus, Pergamon, Aphrodis- ias, Aspendos, Karatepe, Göreme and Perge are some of them. 331 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Gobeklitepe Archaeological Site Bergama Akslepion Archaeological Site Aspendos Archaeological Site Bogazkoy Hattusha Ruins Ephesus Archaeological Site Perge Ruins 332 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD In the last twenty years, 79 temporary exhibitions abroad and 184 temporary exhibitions in Türki- ye have been organised. "Gifts of the Sultan: The Art of Giving At The Islamic Courts" Exhibition in the USA in 2011-2012, "Civilisations of Türkiye" Exhibition in Korea in 2012-2013, "Anatolian Civi- lisations: From the Neolithic Age to the Ottoman Empire" Exhibition in China in 2013-2014, "Sacred Sites" Exhibition in Belgium in 2014-2015, "Wom- en" Exhibition in the Netherlands in 2015, "The Treasures and The Tradition of Tulip in The Ot- toman Dynasty" Exhibition in Japan in 2019 and "Brass, Steel and Fire" Exhibition in England in 2020-2021 are among the exhibitions held abroad. In addition, temporary domestic exhibitions are organised in museums affiliated with the Min- istry of Culture and Tourism and private muse- ums operating under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism supervision. "The War of Independence Exhibition: Sovereignty belongs to the Nation" ex- hibition held at the National Library of the Presi- dency in 2020-2021, the "Prince Abdulmajid Efen- di and the Art of Calligraphy" exhibition held at the Sakıp Sabancı Museum in 2022, and the "Dar al-Mulk Konya Seljuk Palaces" exhibition held at the Istanbul Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art. Our Troy Museum won the 2020 Special Award at the European Museum of the Year Competition, the most prestigious museum award in Europe, which is given annually by the European Muse- um Forum (EMF) under the auspices of the Coun- cil of Europe. Our Troy Museum, which also won the 2020/2021 European Museum Academy Spe- cial Award, became the first Turkish museum to win both awards. Istanbul Hisart, Living History Museum, was awarded the Special Award of our Ministry in 2020, Odunpazarı Modern Museum was awarded the Special Award of our Ministry in 2019, the International Project of the Year Award from the UK in 2020, and the European Museum of the Year Award 2020 by the European Museum Forum (EMF). The Silletto Award for 2021, also given by the European Museum Forum (EMF), was given to the Bayburt Private Kenan Yavuz Ethnography Museum for promoting the fusion of public and museology. Our other internationally awarded museums are as follows: Nevşehir Cappadocia 333 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • 2004- Private Edirne Sultan Bayezid II Com- plex Health Museum / Council of Europe European Museum Award • 2004- Private Bayburt Baksı Museum / Council of Europe European Museum Award • 2009- Private Istanbul Museum of Modern Art / European Museum of the Year Special Award • 2014- Private Istanbul Museum of Innocence / European Museum of the Year Award In 2019, our museums and archaeological sites welcomed 35,048,417 visitors, the highest number of visitors in the history of museology. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide, the number of visitors in 2020 was 8,918,950. In 2021, the num- ber of visitors to museums and archaeological sites increased by 80% compared to 2020 and reached 17,065,386 by the end of the year. A New Era in Museology in Anatolia, the Cradle of Civilisations To present the valuable artefacts of our cultural heritage within the framework of modern muse- ology understanding, the Ministry is carrying out activities to open new museums and renovate ex- isting ones. Today, there are 210 museums, 143 archaeologi- cal sites, 126 mausoleums under the General Di- rectorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 337 private museums operating under the supervision of the Ministry and 1586 collectors. To provide services for the visitors at the archae- ological sites under the Ministry, the works for reception centres, sales units, walking paths and observation terraces are also being carried out. In this context; In 2019, Gaziantep Zeugma Archaeological Site Reception Centre and Landscaping, Çanakkale Hasan Mevsuf Martyrdom Landscaping, Şanlıur- fa Göbeklitepe Archaeological Site Landscaping, Ahlat Seljuk Cemetery South Gate Landscaping and Landscaping Application inside the Ceme- tery, Ağrı İshakpaşa Palace Landscaping, In 2020, Antalya Patara, Mersin Cennet-Cehen- nem, Burdur Kibyra, Antalya Xanthos, Kars Ani, Çanakkale Assos and Muğla Stratonikeia Ruins landscaping works have been completed and opened to visitors. In 2021, Karahantepe Temporary Visitor Recep- tion Centre was completed and opened to visitors. 334 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD I t is known that printing in Türkiye started shortly after the invention of printing in Eu- rope, and minorities living within the borders of the Ottoman Empire also established print- ing houses. The Jews established the first print- ing house in 1494, and the first book, which is thought to be an explanation of the Torah, was published. The first published work was a Turk- ish-Arabic dictionary called "Lügat-i Vankuli" and other works followed. Between the establishment of the first Turkish printing house in 1727 and the adoption of Latin letters in 1928, only 20 thousand works were published, and this number exceeded 200 thousand in the next 50 years. The first pri- vate printing house was the printing house of the "Ceride-i Havadis" newspaper, published in 1840. Printing Machine of Ibrahim Müteferrika, Founder of the first Muslim Printing House in the Ottoman Empire PUBLISHING AND LIBRARIES 336 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Beyazıt State Library 337 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Şemsi Pasha District Public Library 338 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 339 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Istanbul University Library of Faculty of Economics 340 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The number of book titles produced by our pub- lishing sector increased to 87,231 by the end of 2021. The total number of books produced by the publishing sector reached 438,679,864 by the end of 2021. Thus, the highest production figure of all time was reached. Considering that the number of books produced in 2020 was 433,213,632, a growth of 5,466,232 and 1.26% was realized. Publishing is growing and strengthening its infrastructure every year with its dynamic structure and signif- icant success in opening up to the outside world. According to the most recent international statis- tics announced by the International Publishers Association and the World Intellectual Property Organization, Türkiye ranks 6th in the world re- garding the number of ISBN allocated titles and 10th in retail market size. As in previous years, the highest number of ban- derole sales by type of work was in the education category. 234 million 204 thousand 906 bande- roles were allocated in the education category, 90 million 379 thousand 535 in the adult category, 43 million 973 thousand 357 in the child-youth cate- gory, 31 million 183 thousand 411 in the adult fic- tion category, 27 million 909 thousand 66 in the faith category, 6 million 220 thousand 481 in the academic field, 4 million 808 thousand 808 in the imported publication category and 300 in other fields. The number of books published for the first time was 60 thousand 353, and the number of books with second or more editions was 119 thousand 542. The total number of publications reached 179 thousand 895. The number of books distributed free of charge by the Ministry of National Educa- tion was 199 million 312 thousand 999, of which 111 million 706 thousand 468 were primary school textbooks and 87 million 606 thousand 531 were secondary school textbooks. According to infor- mation obtained from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the Ministry of National Education, 637 million 992 thousand 863 non-periodical publications were printed throughout the year. Excluding books downloaded from digital plat- forms, works that do not exceed 48 pages in total, excluding the cover, which does not require a ban- derole, non-periodical publications for education- al purposes for pre-school, primary and second- ary education, and books taken from libraries and exchanged between individuals, the number of physical books per capita in 2021 remained stable compared to the previous year with a rate of 7.6. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism prepares and publishes written documents of our national culture, intellectual and artistic works, and pub- lications for tourism and promotion purposes in line with the publishing activities aimed at pro- ducing new results to keep our artistic, cultural and historical accumulation alive and transfer it to future generations. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism has pub- lished 526 printed works since 2002 within the scope of the "Project for the Printing and Publica- tion of National Cultural Works" and 182 e-books since 2005 within the scope of the "Project for the Digitalization of Turkish Classical Works". In addition, to encourage the supply of products in formats other than printed books in our coun- try and R&D and innovation studies for the use of technology in publishing, and to support dig- ital production in the publishing sector, the "My e-book" mobile application, the Digital Publish- ing Platform, whose operations and transactions have been carried out since 2021, has been put into operation. This platform, where publications in e-book for- mat are offered to citizens free of charge, can be accessed by readers via mobile phones, tablets, and e-book readers on Android and IOS versions with the "My e-book" mobile application. The plat- form in question incorporates up-to-date and us- er-friendly technological features. As of May 2022, a total of 2,371 titles, including 120 titles of e-books from the Ministry's publications 341 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and 2,251 titles of e-books rented from private publishers with appropriate licensing models and offered free of charge to our citizens, have been made available to e-book readers on the platform. In addition, activities are ongoing to publish more e-books on the platform. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, which pro- vides financial support to publishing houses op- erating abroad for the translation and publication of works from Turkish into foreign languages, has provided financial support to publishing houses abroad for the publication of 3,495 works in 60 languages in 85 countries since 2005 under the "Translation and Publication Grant Programme of Türkiye (TEDA)". As of May 2022, the number of works published with TEDA support reached 2,862. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism organizes "International Literary Translation Workshops" to support literary translation activities in Türki- ye and to contribute to professional development in the field of literary translation. In this context, in 2021, Turkish-German and Turkish-Persian Translation Workshops were organized in Istan- bul with the participation of approximately 40 translators from 4 countries. In 2022, International Literary Translation Work- shops were organized in 3 different languages: Turkish-Italian, Turkish-Spanish, and Turk- ish-Hungarian. With the translation workshops organized in 2021 and 2022, the total number of workshops reached 74. These workshops were at- tended by 722 translators from 34 different coun- tries. Furthermore, since 2014, the "Support for Literary Works (EDES) Project" has been implemented to produce and publish new and original works in the field of Turkish literature, to support new au- thors, and to provide publishing support to pub- lishing houses that will publish "first works" of literature. Within the scope of this project, 1,756 applications have been received, and 387 works have been supported since 2014. An official process was initiated with the Voca- tional Qualifications Authority to determine na- tional occupational standards for the professions of editor-in-chief, e-publishing coordinator, illus- trator, copyright representative, graphic designer, graphic application specialist, and accountant to support the creation of a qualified workforce 342 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD needed by the publishing sector, increase pro- ductivity in employment and establish or update vocational education and training programs in line with the standards to be determined. In this framework, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism organized the Publishing Occupational Standards Workshop in Istanbul on October 19-24, 2021 and defined the national standards for the seven pro- fessions together with professional organizations and civil society organizations. Libraries There is a 900-year tradition of libraries in Türki- ye. Libraries were established in institutions such as mosques, tombs, madrasahs, and soup kitch- ens throughout the early periods of the Ottoman Empire, and later, although they were part of the foundations, they began to develop as separate institutions. The first library of this nature was the "Köprülü Library" founded by Köprülü Fazıl Ahmet Pasha in Istanbul in 1678. Some of the li- braries founded by state and religious leaders and kept alive through foundations continue to exist today with their collections. Founded in 1884 and still serving today under the name "Beyazıt State Library", "Kütüphane-i Osmaniye" was the first li- brary established by the state during the Ottoman period. Today, information and document management departments have been opened in 16 universities across the country. These departments provide undergraduate and graduate education in librar- ianship. Within the framework of the Active Library Pro- ject and the concept of living libraries, new librar- ies are being opened in shopping centres, airports, railway stations and penal execution institutions and their service spaces are being improved in or- der to provide modern library services by increas- ing access opportunities. With a user-oriented approach, modernisation works are being carried out for the furnishing and Şehit Şenay Aybüke Yalçın Provincial Public Library Türkiye has 300 thousand volumes of manuscripts. 343 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD equipment of old libraries, and new generation library buildings are being constructed with the features that enable qualified library services to be provided. In addition to special libraries for ba- bies and children, literature museum libraries, art libraries, history of sciences libraries and Sufi cul- ture and literature libraries, which are considered as specialised libraries, are also provided. Public libraries are more than just places where information resources are preserved and loaned; they have evolved into places where knowledge is created, experienced, and society socialises. The number of public, children, and manuscript libraries affiliated with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is 1,258. As of 2021, nearly 5 million members and 15.7 million readers benefited from 22.3 million books. The 66 mobile libraries pro- vide services to people living in distant districts, towns, and villages who cannot benefit from pub- lic libraries for various reasons. There are also li- braries in various public institutions and organi- zations, municipalities, natural and legal persons, schools, and universities at all levels. As of the end of 2010-2021, there are 22,359,038 books in these libraries, and the total number of users utilizing these libraries is 15,683,134. Through mobile libraries, library services are provided to users who cannot benefit from the built-in library service, and equal opportunity is provided in access to information. As of the end of 2021, 66 mobile libraries were in service through- out the country. These vehicles are equipped with technological equipment such as computers, printers, and televisions. In addition, mobile li- braries served as Education Information Network (EBA) support points by providing free internet during the pandemic period. Various activities are carried out in the visited areas with tables, chairs, brain teasers, and toys in the mobile library ve- hicles. In addition, film screenings can be made with digital screens in the mobile library. In this context, services were provided to 4,545 locations across the country, 1,445,182 users were reached, 635,798 library memberships were made, and 1,419,194 books were lent. An automation system enabling librarianship transactions to be carried out over the internet was initiated in 2004. As of June 2010, all public libraries started to use the "MİLAS Library Auto- mation Programme". Later, in 2014, "Koha Library Automation Programme", an open source soft- ware, was switched, and this program is still used in libraries. Furthermore, as part of the "Public Libraries Inter- net Access Project," free internet access is provid- ed on 8,000 computers around the country. 344 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Library Events The General Directorate of Libraries and Publi- cations (KYGM) of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism carries out essential activities to promote reading and using libraries and develop and dis- seminate reading culture. Public libraries with a rich collection of books and periodicals organise robotics, felt, origami, knit- ting, ceramics, marbling, sewing, jewellery design, bookmark and hat making workshops, Karagöz and Hacivat shows, fairy tale hours, talks on lit- erature, culture, arts, personal development and health, family seminars and awareness training. These activities strengthen children's bonds with the library and are used as a tool to reach poten- tial users. Activities for pre-school and school-age children contribute to their physical, cognitive and conceptual development and increase their level of knowledge. Since 2010, 8,329,531 people have participated in 62,442 library activities or- ganised across the country. During the pandemic period, when individuals avoided being in public spaces, more than 600 online activities were or- ganised through the "etkinkutuphane" (active li- brary) social media accounts of the DGPL. In addition to special activities in public libraries, activities for all segments of society are carried out in wood design, mathematics, smart agriculture, marbling, hot glass, chemistry, epoxy workshops and virtual reality (VR) platforms established to create disciplined spaces. By the end of 2022, it is planned to launch more than 100 workshops in public libraries serving throughout the country. Translation and Publication Grant Programme of Türkiye (TEDA) has provided financial support to publishing houses abroad to publish 3,495 works in 60 languages in 85 countries since 2005. As of May 2022, the number of works published with TEDA support reached 2,862. 345 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 346 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD N ation's Library of the Presidency, the lar- gest library, culture, and art venue establis- hed by the Presidency in the history of the Republic, was opened on February 20, 2020, with a ceremony attended by President Recep Tayyip Er- doğan, President of Uzbekistan Şevket Mirziyoyev, as well as approximately two thousand five hund- red guests from the scientists, academics and cul- ture/arts community. With its architectural structure, collection, cultural and artistic fields, and technological opportunities of the era, the library has become our country's window to the world and has given a new impetus to the library and librarianship profession. The library, established as a Living Centre, Living Library, Culture and Art Centre with the goal of ser- ving readers and visitors of all ages, sects, educa- tional and cultural levels, and built with a seating capacity of 5,000 people on an area of 125 thou- sand square metres, information resources, servi- ces, and a contemporary librarianship approach, is more than just a library. NATION’S LIBRARY OF THE PRESIDENCY 348 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD With a collection of over 2 million printed books in a wide range of languages and subjects from many countries, 2 million issues of 13,500 printed jour- nals, 67 databases, and over 210 million electronic resources (550,000 e-books, 6,500,000 electronic theses, and a collection of nearly 60,000 e-journal articles, reports, and so on), the library can serve anyone who needs information, books, and art on a national and international scale. The Nation's Library of the Presidency gained the status of Compilation Library with the amend- ment made in the Compilation Regulation on June 3, 2017. Within the scope of this regulation, the compilation collection of the Ankara Adnan Ötüken Provincial Public Library of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism was transferred to the Lib- rary. Scientists and people of culture, academics, jour- nalists, politicians, artists, etc., all contribute to the enrichment of the library's collection through donations. Among them are: Mehmet Şevket Eygi, Şefik Can, Cemil Meriç, Ab- durrahman Güzel (Prof), Ahmet Burak Erdoğan, Ahmet Güner Elgin, Cinuçen Tanrıkorur, Hasan Celal Güzel, Hasan Doğan (Assoc Prof), İlber Or- taylı (Prof), M. Kamil Dürüst- Beste Gürsu, Metin Külünk, Muhsin Mete, Mustafa Sabbagh (Qatar), Mustafa Şerif Onaran, Sâman/Hatice Helvacıoğlu, Devlet Bahçeli, Fahri Korutürk, Turgut Özal, Halit Refiğ, Hüseyin Öztürk, Khalid Hasan Hendawi, M. Es’ad Coşan, Mehmet Genç, Ayşegül Erdemir (Prof), Abdurrezzak Muhtar, Ahmet Halim Öz- giray, Ali Emre, Beynun Akyavaş, Cevat Ayhan, Dinçer Ural, Efe Süleyman Nergis, Fahri Kasırga, Gönül Tekin, Hacı Yaşar Özen, İbrahim Koca, Kor- kut Özal, M. Ertuğrul Düzdağ, Musa Çağıl, Musta- fa Said Yazıcıoğlu, Nurten Baykurt, Osman Cem Kazmaz, Peyruze Patır, Sadık Tural (Prof.), Sertif Parlak, Yakup Köseoğlu, Zarif Zeyrek. The library's information resources have been developed in accordance with international stan- dards and contemporary librarianship's unders- tanding. In this direction, while RDA-Resource Description and Access cataloguing rules are app- lied in cataloguing, both the Library of Congress Classification System and Dewey Decimal Clas- sification System are used in classification. The books made available to readers using the open shelf system are placed according to the Library of Congress Classification System, whereas the ones made available to readers using the closed shelf system are placed according to their inven- tory numbers. Cihannümâ Hall, Research Library, Youth Library, Rare Works Library, Nasreddin Hodja Children's Library, Sound and Image Library, Periodicals Hall, as well as the Education Centre and Work- shops are located in the library. The library also houses a Bookbindery and Hospital for mainte- nance, repair, and restoration. 349 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD TURKISH CUISINE -- TURKISH CULINARY HERITAGE -- PROMINENT DELICACIES IN THE TURKISH CUISINE -- GASTRONOMY CITIES OF UNESCO CREATIVE CITIES NETWORK -- STUDIES ON THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF TURKISH CUISINE GASTRONOMY CITIES OF UNESCO CREATIVE CITIES NETWORK 352 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T he rich cultural heritage of Turkish Cuisine is multi-layered and diverse, with culinary traditions inherited from distant and near- by geographies maturing over centuries. Türkiye's bountiful geography and abundant flora and fa- una resulting from its climate are significant ele- ments in the emergence of Turkish Cuisine. Since 10,000 B.C. in Anatolia, the homeland of wheat, the Turkish culinary culture has been carrying hidden traces of the Neolithic history and ancient civilisations such as the Hittites, Urartus, Phrygi- ans, Greeks, and Romans that flourished on this heritage. On the other hand, the characteristics of Turkish Cuisine were developed by the eating ha- bits of the Turks who migrated from Central Asia to Anatolia in the 11th century. Delicacies such as yoghurt, yufka (filo), pastırma (seasoned cured beef), kurut (kashk), and mantı (a type of dump- ling) can be traced back to Central Asian Turkish Cuisine. In the Middle Age, the eating habits brou- ght by the Turks from their own lands met with the cuisines of the settled people, and therefore, new consuming habits emerged with the intera- ction of Turkish, Arabic-Iranian, and Byzantine cuisine traditions. Anatolian Seljuk cuisine is the basis of Ottoman cuisine. Since the Seljuk and early Ottoman pe- riods, basic dishes, desserts, and beverages of Turkish Cuisine, such as börek (a type of pastry), bread, halva, keşkek, baklava, kebab, stew, bora- ni, pickles, sherbet, compote, and kadayıf (a type of dessert), as well as their techniques and vari- ations, have existed throughout Turkish culinary history. Ottoman palace cuisine was created and enriched in the Ottoman capital, İstanbul, and has been passed down to the present day. İstanbul cu- isine, which was the extension of Ottoman palace cuisine from the 15th century to the beginning of the 20th century, has undergone various stages, as TURKISH CULINARY HERITAGE 354 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD well as enhanced and shaped the foundation of traditional Turkish Cuisine. Throughout the Ot- toman period, the ingredients used in the kitchen evolved and were supplemented with new con- cepts. Tomatoes, red and green peppers, potato- es, mastic, pumpkins, beans, and corns, which are now the crown jewels of Turkish Cuisine, entered the Ottoman geography only after the discovery of the American continent. Each has a unique origin and introduction to Ottoman cuisine. The culinary traditions of the people living toget- her in the same geography for centuries in the Ottoman Empire interacted with one other and produced a collective inventory of delicacies. In addition, these shared delicacies have moved be- yond the confines of İstanbul and Anatolia to the Balkans, Eastern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. For this reason, Turkish Cuisine still possesses many shared aspects with nearby geog- raphies. Many dishes such as baklava, stuffed ve- getables or leaves, kebab, pilaf, börek, stew, kada- yıf, keşkek, halva, döner, yoghurt, moussaka, and Turkish delight and coffee are an extension of the Turkish culinary heritage still flourishing in this vast geography. Written Turkish culinary heritage can be traced back to the 15th century through cookbooks. It is possible to follow the story of many dishes and beverages still surviving in today's Turkish Cuisi- ne through the cook booklets and books written in Ottoman Turkish in the 18th and 19th centuries. According to these sources, the dishes that have been in our kitchen since the Ottoman period are soups, pilaf, börek, savoury pastries such as pide, dishes with red meat, poultry, game meat, and fish such as kebabs, stews, cutlets, and meatballs, dis- hes with egg, vegetable dishes with meat such as stuffed vegetables or leaves, moussaka, and bastı, olive oil-braised vegetable dishes, appetisers such as salads, mezes, and pickles, puddings, pastry desserts with sherbet, halva, ashura (Noah’s Ark pudding), fruit desserts, sherbets, compotes and syrups, Turkish delights, and sweets such as hard candy. Our culinary tradition has changed and grown over the ages via the use of new ingredients, the introduction of new cooking techniques, and cu- linary interactions from rural to urban and vice versa. Local culinary traditions that persist in Anatolia now, as in the past, differ in flavour and technique from İstanbul cuisine, which origina- ted from the Ottoman Palace cuisine and may be regarded as classic Turkish Cuisine. The diverse soil and climatic characteristics of the East, West, North, and South regions have prompted the for- mation of local cuisines that reflect the cultures of the people they have fused with. In Eastern Anatolia, where the weather conditions are har- sh, a culinary culture focused on mutton, dairy products, wheat, and legumes is dominant. In the Eastern Mediterranean and Southeastern Ana- tolia, dishes such as içli köfte (stuffed meatball or kibbeh) made with bulgur, lahmacun, spicy kebabs, as well as desserts with sherbets such as baklava stand out. The cuisine of Central Anato- lia, which is the wheat reserve and steppe region of Anatolia, is dependent on wheat-based dishes like börek, bread, and bulgur. In the Black Sea re- gion, corn, kale, and anchovies comprise the core components of traditional meals. A Mediterrane- an cuisine model comes to the fore in the Aegean region, with higher consumption of olive oil, fru- its, vegetables, and wild herbs, lesser meat intake, and significantly increased fish consumption in coastal areas. 355 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Turkish Cuisine is ecologically and culturally sustainable. No food is wasted in our kitchen, whether it be fruits, vegetables, or meat. In our kitchen, every ingredient is repurposed to pre- vent food waste. For example, several meals, such as tirit and popara, incorporate stale bread and yufka. Turkish culture passes down meals from generation to generation via rituals such as rites, weddings, feasts, and circumcision, and rituals via meals. The sustainability of our culinary tra- dition is demonstrated within this context. Tables are the most significant gathering spaces for fami- lies. From birth to death, every significant time of change in a person's life is accompanied by foods and beverages. Turkish Cuisine is timeless, contemporary, and well-balanced, with a balanced interpretation of every nutritional component, including meat, fish, vegetables, herbs, fruits, grains, legumes, da- iry products, oil seeds, and fermented foods. For this reason, our cuisine offers a wide range of opti- ons to appeal to all palates. Our meals are cooked slowly on the stove, in a tandoor, an oven, or a pot, or grilled over an open flame as a kebab. Vegetab- les, which are typically used as garnishes in many cuisines, play a central part in Turkish Cuisine. Vegetable dishes with or without meat, olive oil, clarified butter-cooked, stuffed, chopped, fried, and cooked in their own fluids over a slow fire give an abundance of flavour. Wheat, the main ingre- dient of bread, is also the primary component of a broad range of böreks and pastries. Additionally, bulgur made from wheat is a staple food. Legumes such as lentils, chickpeas, and beans are used in soups, main dishes, and salads. Mutton and lamb are the most popular forms of meat used in our kitchen. However, beef is also extensively con- sumed nowadays. Kebabs, stews, and cutlets are made with beef, poultry, or fish. With their nec- tars, fruits revive sherbets and syrups, while their berries give life to jams and compotes. In Turkish culture, the festive flavours of holidays and speci- al days include all sorts of desserts, like puddin- gs, desserts with fruit or sherbet, as well as sweet pastries. Soup is always offered at a traditional Turkish meal, especially during dinner. A variety of olive oil-braised vegetables or stuffed vegetables and leaves and refreshing appetisers like salads, pick- les, and cacık are set on the table in advance. The main course can be a vegetable- or legume-based pot meal with or without meat, stuffed vegetab- les, red meat, or chicken dishes such as meatbal- ls, stews, and kebabs. The main dish is typically served with rice or bulgur pilaf. It is impossible to picture a Turkish dinner without bread. There are several types of leavened and unleavened bread in our culture, where bread is synonymous with food. Some dishes on the Turkish table, such as mantı, su böreği, and çiğ köfte, constitute a comp- lete meal. It is customary to serve fruit or dessert at the end of a meal. On special events, holidays, or while hosting guests, dishes are prepared with greater care, variety, and attention to detail. Our traditional cuisine is preserved by our mot- hers and grandmothers at home and our top chefs in restaurants, who pass it down from generation to generation. Preserving, recording, sharing, and adapting the flavours that are gradually vanishing from Turkish Cuisine in a rapidly changing wor- ld is crucial to ensuring the sustainability of our culinary culture, which is a significant aspect of Türkiye's intangible cultural heritage. 356 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Soups Soup is the triangulation point of Turkish Cui- sine. Our soups, renowned for their nutritional value, are considered "food for the soul" and have significance in our culture that extends well be- yond a mere meal. Soups often signify the start of the day in Ana- tolia. In fact, until recently, breakfast in Turkish culture consisted of a bowl of soup and yufka. Today, all local restaurants serve soup, and the "soup of the day" is the indispensable starter of a meal. Soups can be consumed at every meal and are a dish found on all dining tables. Soups are mostly completed in Turkish Cuisine with the last magic touch. At the last moment, soups which are often cooked without butter are garnished with sizzling hot butter or clarified butter with dried herbs such as mint and tarra- gon or spices such as red pepper flakes. This final touch adds an incredible flavour to the piping hot soup. A bowl of soup served to guests is a symbol of sharing, a symbol of Turkish hospitality. PROMINENT DELICACIES IN THE TURKISH CUISINE 358 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Mezes Meze is a term used to describe foods served du- ring a meal for tasting and sharing. Meze means "taste" in Persian, which explains why they are of- fered in small portions for appetising and tasting. Meze tables are made up of a selection of very dif- ferent foods, most of which are cold dishes prepa- red earlier. Hot meze dishes are also prepared im- mediately and served at intervals. Hot stew dishes are generally not part of the meze table. In Türki- ye's coastal regions, fish, and in other regions, sa- utéed diced lamb, grilled meatballs, or kebab are served as main courses after the mezes. Salads and Pickles Freshness is one of the most valued aspects of Turkish Cuisine. Always present at a meal as gar- nishes are fresh herbs, greens, radishes, cucum- bers, lettuce, and spring onions. Olive Oil-Braised Vegetables Olive oil-braised vegetables are a Turkish culinary staple. The technique of patiently cooking vege- tables in extra virgin olive oil until they absorb their own juices is distinctive to Turkish Cuisine. In this manner, both the flavour of the vegetables and the nutrients they contain are preserved. The- refore, olive oil-braised foods are among the healt- hiest dishes. The evolution of olive oil-braising of vegetables as a different cooking technique is based, to an ex- tent, on the Ottoman Empire's multicultural, mul- ti-faith structure. Stuffed Vegetables and Leaves The tradition of stuffing vegetables and leaves is one of the most essential aspects of Turkish Cu- isine. Every type of vegetable or leaf that can be stuffed qualifies. Consequently, stuffing herbs and leaves gathered from nature is an extremely significant tradition. 359 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Bread In terms of local wheat types, Anatolia, which is considered the cradle of wheat, is astoundingly abundant. This abundance is reflected in meals through the variety of bread. Turkish Cuisine has different bread for every occasion, from break- fast to meze, from pot dishes to kebabs. Bread is a must to start a meal. There are numerous kinds of bread made with leavened or unleavened dough, ranging from thin yufkas to huge hearth loaves. Breakfast The richness of the Turkish breakfast in terms of food variety and quality of ingredients is re- nowned worldwide. The rich breakfast, which is typically consumed on the weekends, is the most essential meal of the day. It is known that the word kahvaltı (breakfast) is directly related to coffee which has a significant place in the Ottoman food and beverage culture. Coffee not only established its own culture as a beverage consumed in İstanbul since the first half of the 16th century, but it also paved the way for the development of Turkish breakfast culture. Be- fore breakfast, Ottoman society had two meals a day, one in mid-morning and the other between afternoon and evening. For those who lived in the countryside and went to work in the early hours of the morning, there was also a quick meal consis- ting of a bowl of soup, bread, or leftovers eaten at dawn. Breakfast dishes were initially on the swe- eter side, and it took time for the breakfast that began as a light meal to become a main meal. It is well known that this "meal before the coffee," which was thought up in order to avoid drinking coffee on an empty stomach, remained a meal specific to dawn for several centuries. Dishes with Eggs Whether for breakfast or a quick lunch, varieties of dishes with eggs are frequently included in daily life, sometimes even as part of a lavish iftar table. Herbs and vegetables sautéed with eggs are popular throughout Anatolia, and several variati- ons exist. 360 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Börek and Pastries Pastries are undoubtedly one of the most impor- tant foods in Turkish Cuisine. All sorts of salty pastries prepared with leavened and unleavened dough are known in every corner of Türkiye and are prepared with ingredients and techniques that vary according to the region. Pot Dishes One of the most powerful aspects of Turkish Cu- isine is pot dishes, which combine different nut- rients and are a modest and highly nutritious dish type. Pilafs Pilaf, the cornerstone of Turkish Cuisine, is found on almost every table and serves as an accompa- niment to many dishes as well as a complement to the meal. There are pilaf varieties that are filling enough to serve as the main course. Sometimes it is the entire meal. Bulgur Dishes Bulgur, the most basic cereal product in Turkish Cuisine, is made by first boiling wheat and then drying and cracking it. Bulgur has a long history in these lands, as Anatolia and Mesopotamia were the first places where wheat was grown, dating back to 10,000 BC. 361 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Meatballs Turkish Cuisine takes the lead in terms of meat- ball variety in world cuisines. Meatballs, which are indispensable in restaurants and treasured in homes, have a special place among street delica- cies. Kebabs The historical origins of the kebab in Turkish society go way back. The Central Asian Turkish communities' interest in kebab was passed down to the Seljuks and Ottomans and then to the pre- sent day. Fish and Seafood This geography, surrounded on three sides by the sea, has provided an abundance of fish and seafo- od. These products are reflected in Turkish Cuisi- ne through various delicious dishes. Offals Another reflection of Anatolian culinary culture is offal. From the head to the legs, every part of the animal is used, and each offal is transformed into a different flavour. And each offal has a healing effect. Offals, each a superfood, strengthen immu- nity and empowers the body. Desserts and Cookies Traditional Turkish Cuisine owes the richness of its dessert repertoire to the Ottoman culinary cul- ture. The presence of a special unit called halvaha- ne (sweets bakery), which is connected to palace kitchens, demonstrates the special importance given to desserts in Ottoman culture. Beverages The Ottomans, who had a highly developed beve- rage culture, influenced modern Turkish society's drinking habits. Drinks, syrups, and sherbets (sweetened fruit juices) were consumed on the advice of physicians in the Ottoman Empire, be- lieving that they were good for health. Some were drunk to quench thirst and aid digestion, while others were used as medicine and syrup to cure a condition. 362 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T ürkiye, which is included in the UNES- CO Creative Cities Network in the field of gastronomy with the cities of Gaziantep in 2015, Hatay in 2017 and Afyonkarahisar in 2019, stands out with its regional richness, apart from gastronomy centres such as İstanbul. The coexis- tence of civilisations, different cultures, and li- festyles for thousands of years is reflected in the tables of these cities, which are Türkiye's culinary legends. The delicious tastes of Gaziantep, Hatay, and Afyon, which are part of UNESCO's Creative Cities Network in the field of gastronomy, bear the traces of centuries-old traditions and a deeply ro- oted culture. Gaziantep Gaziantep, located in the northwest Mesopotamia region, where humanity first began agriculture and livestock, has a rich agricultural diversity as a result of its climate and fertile lands. Historically, the city's location on important routes, particular- ly the historical Silk Road, and the fact that cultu- res were intertwined for thousands of years led to the formation of multicultural, rich tables. There are almost 500 different types of food in Gazian- tep. Another point that draws attention to this city is the very special relationship that the city's resi- dents have with delicacies. When one thinks of Gaziantep, which has been a member of UNESCO's Creative Cities Network in the field of gastronomy since 2015, kebabs made with dozens of different vegetables and fruits and also wondrous baklavas made with pistachios come to mind. However, the city is just as distinct, particularly with its numerous home-cooked me- als, whose recipes have been passed down throu- gh generations, ranging from "lebeniye soup" to "şiveydiz." The registration of "Gaziantep Baklava" with a geographical indication before the Europe- an Union is also a prominent feature of the city. It can also be seen here that Anatolia has had a tra- dition of starting the day with soup for centuries. The special delicacy of Gaziantep in this regard is "beyran", which is a soup-like dish. Eating some "liver" or a "chickpea wrap" early in the morning is also quite common in the city. There are many places that open at sunrise just for this reason. GASTRONOMY CITIES OF UNESCO CREATIVE CITIES NETWORK 364 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Hatay In Hatay, another culinary legend of Türkiye, the coexistence of different civilisations, cultures, and lifestyles over thousands of years was precisely reflected on the city's tables. In these fertile lands where diverse peoples freely practise their religi- ons, tables are intricately intertwined, like every- thing else. In addition to the legendary delicacies of the city, which has been in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the field of the gastronomy since 2017, another notable delicacy is "Tray Kebab". As in ot- her Anatolian cities, this famous kebab, which is cooked on a tray, is sent to the bakery in the mar- ket for cooking after its initial preparation. Hatay is also one of the cities where the wonderful delicacy of Anatolia, "İçli Köfte" (Kibbeh), is best made. This famous delicacy is called "oruk" in the city. In this city of gastronomy, where mezes al- most compete with main courses, there are hund- reds of varieties of mezes containing roasted pep- pers, eggplants, olives, chickpeas, tomatoes, and walnuts. "Hummus" made with broad bean paste, "salted yoghurt", "peppered bread", and "spicy dry cottage cheese" are among the famous delicacies of the city. One of the most important varieties of food in Hatay undoubtedly is "künefe" (knafeh). One of the city's most famous delicacies, künefe, is made by slowly cooking string kadayıf on a copper tray with unsalted cheese specific to the region over a coal fire and combining it with hot sherbet. Anot- her famous dessert of Hatay is the "pumpkin des- sert", and for centuries, it has been made by kee- ping it in lime putty. Afyonkarahisar Afyonkarahisar, known for its kaymak (clotted cream), Turkish delight and sucuk (a type of spicy sausage), has been in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the field of gastronomy since 2019. Both meat and pastry are used expertly in this dis- tinctive cuisine, which is famous for its numerous traditional delicacies. The city's rich biodiversity is the driving force behind the popularity of Afyon's meat and dairy products. In Afyon, where poppy cultivation is in- tensively carried out, feeding poppy pulp to water buffaloes improves the flavour of both the Afyon kaymak and the meat. Livestock fed on soft spicy herbs has also increased the reputation of the re- gion's delicious sucuk. In addition to black poppy, brown and white poppies are also produced in Afyon. Poppy pas- te, made from three different types of poppies, is a staple of Afyon breakfasts. Poppy, which is an indispensable part of Afyon's cuisine, is added to almost everything from dishes to salads, böreks and desserts. Kaymak, the delicacy as well-known as the city itself, is eaten with jam or honey for breakfast or by putting on desserts and is typically consumed alongside the city's famous dessert, "bread kada- yıf." In these fertile lands, another delicacy that is as famous as the kaymak is Turkish delight. Turkish delight with kaymak, in which the kaymak is spre- ad, and the Turkish delight is rolled while hot, is prepared in different ways using various kinds of fruits today. 365 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 366 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Turkish Cuisine with Timeless Recipes Book "Turkish Cuisine with Timeless Recipes" aims to promote the richness of Turkish Cuisine interna- tionally with the contributions of famous chefs, academics, and experts, and it was prepared un- der the leadership of First Lady Emine Erdoğan and under the auspices of the Presidency in co- operation with the Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency (TGA), and with the support of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Highlighting the healthy storage and cooking te- chniques, quality seeds, natural ingredients, the rich history of Turkish Cuisine shaped by dif- ferent cultures, as well as the fact that it is was- te-free, ecological, and sustainable, the work titled Turkish Cuisine with Timeless Recipes emphasi- ses the compatibility of this deep-rooted cuisine with global nutrition trends. Turkish culinary re- cipes with waste-free, fermented, vegan, plant-ba- sed, gluten-free, dairy-free, local, and superfood ingredients are showcased in the book with speci- al icons. The photographs in Turkish Cuisine with Timeless Recipes reflect the simplicity of Turkish Cuisine without exaggeration. The book Turkish Cuisine with Timeless Recipes, which aims to record centuries-old traditional re- cipes and transfer them to future generations true to their original, contains 218 recipes contributed by four consultants and fourteen chefs. The book, which is especially important in terms of increa- sing international recognition of Turkish Cuisine and gastro-diplomacy, was published in Turkish and English by the Ministry of Culture and Tou- rism Publications in October 2021 under the title "Turkish Cuisine with Timeless Recipes." STUDIES ON THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF TURKISH CUISINE 368 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Turkish Cuisine Week To bring together with a wider audience the Turkish Cuisine's approach that leaves its mark on the future, its quality ingre- dients, the fact that it is essentially waste-free, its sustainability, its compliance with global nutrition trends, and its culture that spans thousands of years, May 21-27 was designated as Turkish Cuisine Week, which was celebrated for the first time this year. Between May 21 and 27, the Turkish Cuisine Week celebrated the story of this ancient cuisine in all its depth, with various events in 81 provinces, 78 countries, and 111 foreign missions in total. In this way, Turkish Cuisine's approach that leaves its mark on the future, its quality ingredients, the fact that it is essentially waste-free, its sustainability, its compliance with global nutrition trends, and its culture that spans thousands of years, met with wider masses. At the same time, menus prepa- red with Turkish Cuisine with Timeless Recipes specifically for this week provided both Turkish and foreign guests with the opportunity to experience the best examples of Turkish Cuisi- ne abroad and at home. In order to support both domestic and international activities, the websites www.turkishcuisineweek. com and www.turkmutfagihaftasi.com were created. The sites contain visual materials such as an "İstanbul menu", recipe vi- deos, a menu card with a logo, a poster, and a QR code specially designed for the week. The Turkish Cuisine Week was launched at the Balıkesir Gast- ronomy Festival on May 20-22, with the participation of First Lady Emine Erdoğan, as well as members of the press, opinion leaders, famous Turkish chefs, and Balıkesir residents. 369 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD INDUSTRY, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY -- GLOBALISING TURKISH INDUSTRY -- DEVELOPMENTS IN R&D -- SECTOR-BASED INDUSTR -- DEVELOPMENTS IN DEFENCE INDUSTRY -- DEVELOPMENTS IN AVIATION TECHNOLOGIES -- ADVANCEMENTS IN SPACE TECHNOLOGIES -- DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF ENERGY -- DEVELOPMENTS IN COMMUNICATIONS SECTOR 372 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD T he history of Türkiye's industrialisation dates back two centuries. The story of in- dustrialisation that emerged in parallel with Tanzimat (Re-ordering the Ottoman State) and the Enlightenment has gained momentum since the establishment of the Republic of Tür- kiye, and several steps have been taken to guide the Turkish industry. Since the 1980s, Turkish industry has been integrated into the global eco- nomy, and with investments made since 2002, Türkiye has risen to become an important regio- nal and global actor. Türkiye has made significant strides in industri- alisation, one of the essential elements of econo- mic development and sustainable growth. Today, Türkiye has an advanced manufacturing industry with a broad range of production, strong interna- tional connections, and export-driven production. While an increase in investments increases our nation's production capacity, it also leads to an increase in employment and gross domestic pro- duct (GDP), particularly in industrial output. The share of the manufacturing industry, which was 18.7% of GDP in 2000, increased to 22% in 2021. Increases in production capacity also encourage the permanent growth of our nation's global mar- ket competitiveness. As of 2016, Türkiye's share of world exports was 0.90%, while this share incre- ased to 0.98% in 2020 and 1.05% in 2021. In 2016, Türkiye ranked as the world's thirty-first-largest exporter; by 2021, it has climbed to the twenty- ninth spot. The structural transformations in Türkiye's ma- nufacturing sector have made the country an exporting and producing powerhouse in the ma- chinery and equipment sector, particularly in the automotive and base metal industries. Türkiye ranks first in the production of raw steel and do- mestic appliances in Europe and fourth in auto- motive production. The exports of the manufacturing industry ac- count for 98% of the industrial sector's total exports and 94% of Türkiye's total exports. The competitiveness of Türkiye's base metal, clothing, food, and textile manufacturing sectors, and pri- marily the automotive sector, has made it a major player in the global export market. In the last two decades, advancements in competitiveness have allowed Türkiye's industrial exports to increase approximately sevenfold, and the 2021 export rate set a new record of $225 billion. The base metal industry takes the first place in exports, followed by automotive, clothing, food GLOBALISING TURKISH INDUSTRY 374 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and textile products, respectively. These five se- ctors account for 50% of manufacturing industry exports. Infrastructures conforming to global standards, a comprehensive incentive system, and support for small and medium-sized businesses, which make up a large portion of the industry, contri- bute significantly to the development of the Tur- kish industry in terms of investment, production, employment, and exports. There are no provinces in Türkiye without an Organised Industrial Zone (OIZ). As of 2022, 2 million 250 thousand people are employed in over 56,000 parcels across 335 OIZs. We anticipate that the newly announced 26 Industrial Zones will contribute $34.5 billion annually to the reduction of the current account deficit, with companies investing in petrochemi- cals, renewable energy, stainless steel, natural gas processing, automotive, paper, high-quality steel production and processing, fertilisers, unmanned air technologies, pharmaceuticals, and other sec- tors, creating an additional 97,565 jobs. Further- more, with the completion of the Ministry of In- dustry and Technology's loan support by the end of 2021, the number of industrial sites available to industrialists reached 489, and approximately 481 thousand people were given the opportunity to work under healthier conditions. Recently, huge industrial sites have been built and put into the service of industrialists. Altın Şehir (Gold Centre) Industrial Site in Maraş, Kayseri Automotive Ser- vices Industrial Site and the Furniture Site in Ha- tay are the best examples of these. Together with Organised Industrial Zones, In- dustrial Zones and all other areas, Turkish in- dustry is fortified with comprehensive invest- ment incentive practices. By assisting the private Türkiye ranks first in crude steel and white goods production and fourth in automotive production in Europe. 375 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD sector, Türkiye's investment and production volu- me are increasing for various reasons, including reducing the current account deficit, ensuring technological transformation, and reducing regi- onal development differences. Türkiye maintains its investor-friendly image by providing nume- rous benefits such as VAT exemption, customs duty exemption, and investment site assignment. With the help of the Small and Medium-Sized En- terprises Development Organisation (KOSGEB), support is provided to small and medium-sized enterprises in areas such as R&D, digitalisation, capacity development and export. National Technology Move Despite the global pandemic that began at the end of 2019 and disrupted the entire global economy, Türkiye's economy is moving forward steadily with the help of a strong industrial ecosystem. The steps that are taken in accordance with Tür- kiye's industrial vision, the "national technology move," play a significant role in this success. In parallel with this vision, Türkiye has prioritised the production of national and domestic techno- logies and has taken significant steps to become not only the market but also a global producer of critical and strategic technologies. With the 2023 Industry and Technology Strategy, the steps to be taken in industry and technology are set out under five main components: "High Technology and Innovation", "Infrastructure", "Human Capital", "Entrepreneurship", and "Digi- tal Transformation and Industry Movement." The Turkish economy has entered a new era with the introduction of this policy. High technology and innovation are now regar- ded as pillars of the Turkish economy, and bre- akthroughs in infrastructure, superstructure, and human resources will accelerate the Turkish eco- nomy in this scope. As of 2022, the number of technoparks, which are the engines of research and development, has inc- reased to 92, while the number of state-sponsored R&D centres has increased to 1,244, and design centres to 324. IT Valley, the largest technocity in Türkiye, is now home to 215 businesses and 2,411 employees. Additionally, the foundations of IT Valley İzmir, which is an extension of IT Valley, have been laid. With these investments, the R&D capabilities of the Turkish industry have increased, and in 2021, seven Turkish companies made it onto the Euro- pean Commission's R&D Scoreboard, a list of the 2,500 companies that invest the most in R&D worldwide. The share of R&D investments in GDP, which was 0.53% in 2002, increased to 1.09% as of 2020. The full-time equivalent of R&D personnel has reac- hed 199 thousand. Our national research institution, the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK), provides extensive assistance in rese- arch and development. In 2021, within the scope of TÜBİTAK's support and scholarship program- mes, a total of 13,198 projects and 24,257 people were supported with 3.1 billion TL at 2022 fixed prices. Under the umbrella of the platforms sup- ported by the Industrial Innovation Network Me- chanisms (SAYEM) and the Centres of Excellence 376 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Support Programme (1004) are projects carried out in areas such as targeted cancer medicine, high-efficiency silicon solar cells, nanomaterials, avionic display technologies, cellular treatment products, MR and Mobile X-Ray imaging systems, smart home products, laser optical processing, and additive manufacturing. Numerous successful products and services have been developed by TÜBİTAK research institutes, particularly in areas that the private sector does not find cost-effective or that are of critical impor- tance to Türkiye. TÜBİTAK Defence Industries Research and Development Institute (SAGE), whi- ch contributes to the development of the Turkish defence industry, has carried out many research and development activities such as missile tech- nologies and submarine battle management sys- tems. In addition, other research institutes work on cutting-edge projects in fields such as satellite technologies, biotechnology, nanotechnology, rail systems, food, energy, operating systems, etc. Türkiye's medium-high- and high-tech market share is growing as the country produces 919 cri- tical technologies identified by the Technology-O- riented Industrial Move Programme. Two billion TL have been allocated to support twenty produ- cts in machinery, the pilot sector. The R&D budget for 31 accepted projects in the mobility sector is 161 million TL, while the production investment budget is 3.45 billion TL, and the total project bu- dget is 3.6 billion TL. Additionally, calls are issu- ed for other sectors in tandem. The objective is to reduce Türkiye's trade deficit by preventing $50 billion in imports through the production of new technology products. In the past five years, Türkiye has undertaken a major initiative in industry and technology. The Turkish industry and technology ecosystem has been supported in all areas, and public-univer- sity-private sector cooperation has made signifi- cant progress. In recent years, Türkiye's growth has been led by its technology-based entrepre- neurial ecosystem. Venture capital funds such 377 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD as TechinvesTR, the Technology and Innovation Fund, the Regional Development Fund, İstanbul Regional Venture Capital Fund, and the IT Valley Venture Capital Investment Fund assist entrepre- neurs. To date, 1,902 entrepreneurs have realised their business ideas within the scope of the TÜ- BİTAK Individual Young Initiative Programme (BİGG), and 463.5 million TL in grants have been provided to entrepreneurs at 2022 fixed prices. On the other hand, as a result of its developing entrepreneurial ecosystem, Türkiye has become one of the top 10 European countries in terms of investment in 2021. İstanbul ranks thirteenth among the European cities that receive the most investment. Trends in Industry Türkiye is the closest follower of the transforma- tions in the world. Regarding digital, green, and electric vehicle transformations, it takes the right steps at the right time. The fourth industrial revolution, also known as digital transformation, has once again demonstra- ted the significance of data. Data is considered to be the most valuable capital of today. In this con- text, Türkiye takes swift action to implement the digital transformation road maps. The first step in this regard was the National Artificial Intelligence Strategy (NAIS). NAIS is essentially exploratory in nature due to the rapid development of the field of artificial intelligence (AI), the evolution of natio- nal strategies in other countries over time, and the fact that NAIS is the first national strategy of our country in this field. Within the scope of "Smart Life, Health Products and Technologies Strategy" and "Mobility Vehicles and Technologies Strategy," the current global si- tuation and the needs in the fields of health and mobility were analysed, and strategic goals, poli- cy and critical project proposals were established to facilitate the adaptation of our country to the transformation in these fields. Within the scope of the "Connected Life with 5G and Beyond Technologies Strategy", the aim is to conduct examinations on 5G technology and its development, the current sectoral situation in our country and around the world, the global context and trends affecting 5G in terms of socioeconomi- cs, technology and sectors; to make investigations covering application areas such as industries, ci- ties, connected and self-driving vehicles; and to put forward policies and action plans based on ecosystem development, legislation and standar- ds, technological maturity and vertical sectors for the transition to "Connected Life with 5G and Be- yond Technologies" for the period covering 2021- 2025. The "Digital Transformation of Finance and Com- merce (FTDD) Strategy" aims to increase foreign trade volume and medium-high-, high-tech pro- duct/service exports of this volume while decre- asing imports by supporting technological deve- lopments in the finance and commerce sectors. Efforts to ensure the effective implementation of the Strategy continue with relevant stakeholders. The "Digital Transformation of the Industry Stra- tegy" aims to strengthen the infrastructures of 378 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD enterprises related to the use of human resources, technology, and technology in flexible producti- on, digital transformation, quality management, innovative product development, participation in the global value chain, energy efficiency, etc. in order to ensure efficiency and self-sufficiency that will boost competitiveness. The technical work on the Strategy is nearing completion. On the other hand, practical steps are taken due to the signi- ficance of the subject. In Ankara, Bursa, Konya, Kayseri, Gaziantep, Mersin, İzmir, and Adana, ei- ght Capability and Digital Transformation Cent- res (Model Factory) have begun operations to guide the private sector in digital transformation. The goal is to increase the number of model facto- ries to 15 by 2023. On the other hand, as is known, in recent years, environmental consciousness has been consi- dered a criterion of economic success alongside welfare. The Grand National Assembly of Türki- ye has clearly demonstrated our country's stance on this issue by ratifying the Paris Climate Agre- ement. Our country's target in this regard is zero emissions by 2053. The Ministry of Industry and Technology contributes to this process with all its institutions, especially the European Green Deal. TÜBİTAK has prepared the Guidance Document on Priority R&D and Innovation Topics within the Scope of the Compliance to the European Green Deal. In this document, the themes are determi- ned as climate change, environment and biodiver- sity, clean and circular economy, clean, accessible, and secure energy supply, green and sustainable agriculture, and sustainable smart transportati- on. The World Bank Türkiye OIZ Project has been initiated to support investments in green infrast- ructure that will accelerate the transformation of OIZs into Green OIZs. In this context, the $300 million loan obtained from the World Bank will be made available to OIZ legal entities. In addition, OIZ performance in resource efficiency, industrial symbiosis opportunities, environmental infrast- ructure, and circular economy will be monitored with the "Green OIZ Certification System" that we will implement. 379 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD With its infrastructure and capabilities, Türkiye has moved swiftly on digital and green transfor- mations. Moreover, Türkiye is prepared for emer- ging trends. For instance, it has become one of the first countries to adopt electric vehicles, which is the new trend in the automotive industry. The C-SUV model, which will be produced as Türki- ye's inherently electric, zero-emission, and intel- ligent vehicle, has the potential to compete with the world's leading brands due to its class-leading wheelbase, internal volume, acceleration per- formance, and total cost of ownership. The first mass-produced vehicle is anticipated to come off the conveyor belt by the end of 2022, with sa- les beginning in the first quarter of 2023. Türki- ye's Automobile Initiative Group (TOGG), which co-founded Siro to produce its own battery with Farasis, the world's leading lithium-ion battery manufacturer, is also working to improve the charging infrastructure in Türkiye. Furthermore, while establishing its own ecosystem, TOGG has not only transformed its business partners, who have only been supplying the internal combusti- on engine vehicle industry for the past 60 years. It has also adopted the principle of collaborating with start-ups. In addition, the Grant Programme for Electric Vehicle Fast Charging Stations aims to install 1,560 fast charging stations throughout Türkiye's provinces. Advances in Space Industries Turkish industry continues on its way as a whole with defence, automotive, chemistry, food, texti- le, electronics, and all other fields. Each of these fields has a positive impact on other sectors. The space industry is one of the most advanced, par- ticularly in terms of high technology. To improve its position in space and make a breakthrough in human resources, our country announced the Na- tional Space Programme in 2021. One of the goals of this programme is to land on the Moon. Our na- tion will contribute to the global revival of the Mo- on's rediscovery by reaching the Moon and colle- cting data from its surface using a spacecraft that will ensure contact with the Moon's surface. The project's task design phase, which began on 15 De- cember 2021, has concluded, and spacecraft and 380 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD system design studies are ongoing. Our country will send a Turkish citizen to the International Space Station in 2023 to gain knowledge and ex- perience in satellite technologies for crewed space missions. This is part of a larger objective to send Turkish citizens into space. Our scientist will con- duct experiments in this mission, which will take approximately ten days. Türkiye aims for the top positions in the space league. In this context, the National Space Prog- ramme is advancing incrementally, as determined by the 10-year strategy. There are also ongoing studies regarding other objectives. In addition, significant advancements have been made in hi- gh-resolution observation satellites and commu- nications satellites. Accelerated Turkish Industry Despite all the challenges the Turkish industry faces, it continues expanding its investment, pro- duction, employment, and export capacities. Its investments in technology have begun to bear fruit in light of the national technology move's vi- sion. Human resource competence has gradually increased, and steps have been taken to increase the number of software developers. Significant progress has been made in entrepreneurship, and Turkish entrepreneurs have proven themselves to the entire world by opening up to the world. With the great support of the Turkish industry, Türkiye will make steady progress toward becoming one of the top 10 economies in the world. Production of High-Quality Information in Line with the Critical Needs of Our Country W ith the "2023 Industry and Technology Strategy", which was published under the leadership of the Ministry of In- dustry and Technology, the steps to be taken in industry and technology are laid out under five main pillars, namely, "High Technology and In- novation", "Infrastructure," "Human Capital," "Ent- repreneurship" and "Digital Transformation and Industry Move." With this policy built, Turkish in- dustry entered a new era. In this context, making our country a global base for value-added produ- ction has been identified as the goal. In many se- ctors, from designed industrial infrastructure to business and investment climates, from R&D and technology ecosystem to qualified human resour- ces, from SMEs and entrepreneurship to regional development, reasonable and effective policies are implemented to achieve this goal. High technology and innovation have been adop- ted as the key concepts for the Turkish industry, and at this point, breakthroughs have been made in the infrastructure, superstructure, and human resources that will provide impetus to Turkish industry. As of 2022, the number of "techno- parks," which are the locomotive of research and development, has increased to 92, the number of state-supported R&D centres to 1244, and the number of design centres to 324". "Bilişim Vadisi (Informatics Valley)," Türkiye's largest techno- city, currently includes 215 enterprises and 2,411 employees. In addition, the foundations of Bilişim Vadisi İzmir, an additional area of Bilişim Vadisi, were laid. The R&D capabilities of the Turkish industry have improved as a result of these investments. In 2021, 7 of our companies have managed to take their place in the "R&D Investment Scoreboard, whi- ch lists the 2,500 companies that make the most R&D expenditures globally", published by the European Commission. Regarding the outputs of academic studies in our research ecosystem, approximately 49 thousand scientific publications from Türkiye were pub- lished in international indexed journals in 2021. In terms of the total number of publications, our country ranked 17th in the world in 2021. About half of the publications from our country are in the most cited 50% of the publications. The qua- lity of the publications in this slice is higher than the average quality of all publications worldwide. DEVELOPMENTS IN R&D 382 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Our universities are among the most important actors in the R&D and innovation ecosystem re- garding our country's competitiveness in the international arena with their functions of pro- ducing knowledge and conducting research. It is critical to strengthen the role of universities in this ecosystem and to increase the number and quality of researchers at universities. In this di- rection, in the last 20 years, our universities have been gradually expanded throughout the country on the one hand, and the number of our universi- ties has been increased to 209; On the other hand, various policies have been implemented to ensure the quality-oriented development of our universi- ties. The total number of teaching staff in our uni- versities, that is, the staff in charge of education, training and research and development activities, the number of teaching staff, which was 102,682 in the last ten years, has increased by 80 per cent and now exceeds 181,000. In this respect, one can conclude that there has been a significant incre- ase in the number of teaching staff who train the country's human capital in the last ten years. In addition, to ensure quality-oriented development in our universities, Mission Differentiation and Specialization Project in higher education by the Council of Higher Education (CoHE), 100/2000 PhD Scholarship Project to create qualified know- ledge and qualified labour force, Target-Oriented Internationalisation Project, Digital Transforma- tion Project in Higher Education, Open Science and Open Access Project, Future Professions Pro- ject, CoHE Future Project, CoHE Anatolia Project, CoHE Virtual Laboratory Project are being carried out. As part of the "Research-Oriented Mission Differentiation and Specialization Programme" initiated by the Council of Higher Education to produce qualified knowledge within the fra- mework of our country's priority objectives and fields, to promote interdisciplinary research and collaboration, to increase the number of researc- hers with doctoral degrees, improve international collaboration, and raise our universities' visibility in the global arena, there are a total of 23 "Rese- arch Universities", 20 of which are state-owned and three of which are foundations. In addition to research universities, some of our universities were selected to support regional development in various cities of Anatolia and started to specialise in this field by being designated as "regional deve- lopment-oriented universities" based on universi- ties' role in development. R&D and innovation projects which will cont- ribute to the mobilisation of the national tech- nology and Türkiye's new economic model, and which will shed light on our country continue to be supported within the Scientific and Techno- logical Research Council of Türkiye (TUBITAK) under the leadership of the Ministry of Industry Türkiye's largest technopolis, "Informatics Valley" is home to 215 companies and 2,411 staff. 383 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and Technology. "Our national research instituti- on, TUBITAK", provides comprehensive support in terms of research and development. In 2021, within the scope of TUBITAK support and scho- larship programmes, a total of 13,198 projects and 24,257 people were supported by 3.1 billion TL at 2022 fixed prices. The distribution of these proje- cts/persons according to the programmes is given below: • In 2021, 1.1 Billion TL at 2022 fixed prices was provided to 3,943 projects as part of the sup- port programmes carried out for the private sector. • In 2021, 3,720 projects were supported by 1.5 billion TL at 2022 fixed prices as part of sup- port programmes for the academy and the public sector. • In 2021, as part of support programmes for scientists, 549.84 million TL support was pro- vided to our 24,257 young people and scien- tists at 2022 fixed prices. • In 2021, 50 million TL support was provided to 5,535 projects at 2022 fixed prices as part of science and community support. While all these supports are provided, the ap- proach of "achieving together" and "improving together" has been adopted to produce scientific solutions for the needs of our country with inno- vative methods. In this context, large-scale plat- form and network support has been carried out, particularly since 2018. The "High Technology Platforms Support and Industrial and Innovation Network Mechanism (SAYEM)" has provided the opportunity to mobilise the public sector, univer- sities and industry together for the needs of our country. Currently, 23 private sector institutions, 19 universities, four research infrastructures and two public R&D centres work together in eight High-Tech Platforms. There are 41 private sector organisations, 18 universities and five public re- search centres in the four platforms we support within the scope of supported Industrial Inno- vation Networks. Projects focusing on areas such as targeted medicine in cancer, high efficiency silicon-based solar cell production, nanomateri- als, avionic display technologies, cellular therapy products and clinical applications, MR and Mo- bile X-Ray imaging systems, smart homes, smart cities, and additive manufacturing are carried out within these platforms. Furthermore, in 2014, the "Law No. 6550 on Sup- porting Research Infrastructures" went into effect to ensure more effective use and sustainability of research infrastructures equipped with qualified human resources and modern technology infrast- ructure in universities, in a way to be the R&D so- lution partner of the public and private sectors in the critical technologies needed by the country. As part of the process carried out by the Ministry of Industry and Technology with the secretariat ser- vice of TUBITAK, there are currently seven resear- ch infrastructures operating in the fields of nano- technology, MEMS technologies, biotechnology (vaccine and drug research and cancer research), accelerator technologies (material technologies in particular), and maritime law research. "The approach of "doing business together" and "achieving together" is also taken as a basis within the scope of the support provided to private sec- tor organisations by paying special attention to the commercialisation of research results and ent- repreneurship processes. With the "Order-based R&D Support Programme", companies that need technology and SMEs that develop technologies are brought together. As of June 2022, 170 proje- cts had been supported, and 272 different firms were currently collaborating on projects for whi- ch contracts had been signed. With the "TUBITAK Patent-Based Technology Transfer Support" (Pa- tent License), support has been provided for the 384 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD transfer of 50 technologies to the industry, which are protected by 50 national and 26 international patents with a total value of 38 million TL. Aca- demia-private sector partnerships are supported through the TUBITAK University-Industry Co- operation Support Programme to transform the knowledge in universities into scalable products or process prototypes that meet industry deman- ds. On the entrepreneurial side, Türkiye's tech- nology-based entrepreneurial ecosystem leads Türkiye's growth. Our biggest advantage on the way to a great and powerful Türkiye is daring ent- repreneurs. In this respect, "financial supports for entrepreneurs are provided by institutions such as the Ministry of Industry and Technology, Small and Medium Enterprises Development Organisa- tion of Türkiye (KOSGEB), development agencies, and TUBITAK". Innovative business ideas are commercialised with structures such as "Techno- parks, incubation centres and Technology Deve- lopment Centers (TEKMERs)". Access to finance for "start-ups" is facilitated by establishing an effe- ctive cooperation environment among businesses, universities, investors and research institutions, and entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs are supported by venture capital funds such as "Tech-InvesTR Venture Capital Support, Technology and Innova- tion Fund, Regional Development Fund, Istanbul Regional Venture Capital Fund, Informatics Val- ley Venture Capital Investment Fund". "TUBITAK Individual Young Enterprise Programme (BIGG)" is carried out in order to transform innovative business ideas into value-added products and services through technology-based start-up com- panies. Within the scope of the support, 1,902 ent- repreneurs have realised their business ideas, and a grant of 476 million TL has been provided to ent- repreneurs at 2022 fixed prices. These companies have made a total of 958 million TL in domestic and international sales in the last five years, and 23% of the sales revenue has been obtained from foreign sales. In addition, mentoring interfaces for SMEs are developed, and mentoring support is provided through TUBITAK to increase the bu- siness development and innovation capacities of entrepreneurs. As part of the mentoring support provided to SMEs, mentor pairings were comple- ted with 319 SMEs as of 2021, and the mentoring service process started. On the other hand, thanks to its developing ent- repreneurial ecosystem, Türkiye has become one 385 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD of the ten European nations receiving the most investments in 2021. Istanbul ranks 13th among the European cities that receive the most invest- ment. A remarkable success story is being written in this regard. The entrepreneurial ecosystem of Türkiye continues on its way with great determi- nation with state support, infrastructure and qu- alified human resources. As of 2022, there are six unicorns in Türkiye. It is advancing step by step towards its target of generating 10 Turkish unicor- ns by 2023. KOSGEB also supports the commercialisation of R&D activities carried out by SMEs in our country and their technology-based investments. With the "KOSGEB Techno-Investment Support Program- me", which is being carried out for SMEs that pro- duce innovative, technological and value-added products, and which seek to take these products to international markets with a focus on export, 90 million TL support payment has been made to 99 enterprises in 2021 for investment projects aimed at production and commercialisation of techno- logy-based products. In 2021, 43 companies rece- ived a total of 35 million Turkish Lira through the "KOSGEB Strategic Product Support Programme," which aims to improve the production capacity of products of critical importance to our country and which have high future potential, as part of investment projects to increase the production of products with high added value in medium-high and high-technology sectors. In addition, 695 pro- ducts, which comprise 47% of the projects within the "KOSGEB R&D, P&D and Innovation Support Programme", have been commercialised, and 110 of the projects that have been supported under the Techno-Investment and Strategic Product Support Programs have been successfully comp- leted. Through KOSGEB, enterprises are provided with Industrial Property Rights up to 50 thousand TL, Certification up to 150 thousand TL, and Test and Analysis support up to 100 thousand TL. In order to produce critical technologies with domestic and national resources, the "Techno- logy-Oriented Industry Move Programme" was implemented by the Ministry of Industry and Technology. The Technology-Oriented Industry Move Programme is a special programme to con- centrate the support and incentives provided by the Ministry and its affiliates/related institutions on medium-high and high-technology sectors by managing them from a single window, in line with the aim of increasing value-added production in Türkiye. Türkiye's medium-high and high-tech- nology market share is increasing with the produ- ction of 919 critical technologies designated by the Technology Oriented Industry Move Programme. In the machinery sector, which is the pilot sector, 20 products are supported with a budget of 2 bil- lion TL. The R&D scale of 31 projects accepted in the mobility sector was 161 million TL, the invest- ment expenditure for production was 3.45 billion TL, and the total project size was 3.6 billion TL. Calls from other sectors are also issued respecti- vely. The goal here is to reduce Türkiye's foreign trade deficit by eliminating the need for imports of 50 billion dollars with the production of new technology products. In the international arena, with our country's strong performance under the Horizon 2020 Fra- mework Programme, our ecosystem has succe- eded in 955 projects and received a total of 297.6 million Euros. Our ecosystem has taken on the role of coordinator in 29 of these projects, which have a total of 1,360 project coordinators. As of June 2022, Turkish researchers took part in 91 projects in the Horizon Europe Programme and were entitled to receive 48.2 million Euros. Many successful products and services have been produced through the "TUBITAK Research Cent- res and Institutes", particularly in areas that the private sector does not find feasible in terms of cost-effectiveness or that are of urgent importan- ce to Türkiye. Contributing to the development of the Turkish defence industry, TUBITAK is in- volved in many research and development activi- ties, such as SAGE missile technologies, and sub- 386 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD marine command control systems. Additionally, other research institutes also focus on satellite technologies, biotechnology, nanotechnology, rail systems, food, energy, operating systems, etc. and create state-of-the-art products in the fields. Qualified Human Resources Türkiye owes all these breakthroughs and deve- lopments in industry and technology to its human resources, whose quality is gradually increasing. While the competence of human resources for Turkish industry and technology makes progress with institutional support and educational tools, human resources gain experience through com- petitions, projects, olympics and festivals. TUBITAK provides comprehensive support for secondary education, high school, university and beyond. "Industrial PhD Programme, Intern Rese- archer Scholarship Programme, International Fel- lowship for Outstanding Researchers Programme, Aziz Sancar International Postdoctoral Resear- ch Fellowship Programme" are just some of the examples. With the "Industrial PhD Programme", which was initiated to increase qualified human resources in the industry within the scope of the National Technology Move, it is ensured that 1,162 doctoral students are trained in the fields needed by the industry in cooperation with 49 universi- ties and 210 industrial organisations. With the "International Fellowship for Outstanding Rese- archers Programme" designed particularly for re- verse brain drain, 190 top researchers have been integrated into our ecosystem to work in various institutions and organisations, including private sector organisations with R&D or design centres or capital companies established within tech- noparks. In addition, "82 qualified researchers who have carried out pioneering research in our country continue to be supported by the National Leader and Young Researchers Programmes". "TUBITAK Science High School" with modern laboratories began its educational journey. The number of "Deneyap Technology Workshops" in Türkiye has increased to 66, preparing our youth for cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence, the internet of things, cloud techno- logies, and 3D printers. Moreover, "42 Istanbul and 42 Kocaeli" the new generation software develop- ment schools established by the "Turkish Open Source Platform" with the support of projects co- ordinated by Istanbul Development Agency (IDA) and East Marmara Development Agency (MAR- KA), offer training based on the self-learning mo- del in our country. TEKNOFEST, the world's largest Aviation, Space, and Technology Festival is on a fast track to beco- ming a global brand. As of 2021, tens of thousands of youths from hundreds of countries participated in TEKNOFEST competitions. TEKNOFEST was held in Azerbaijan in 2022, crossing the country's borders, and will also be held in Samsun. Sky Ob- servation Festivals, which were held in Antalya to 387 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD make people aware of the sky, have spread throu- ghout Anatolia. Moreover, the achievements of "Turkish youth at the Olympiads" crown the investments made in human resources. At the 2021 Olympiads organi- sed in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Computer Science, Turkish students won 60 medals, including 5 gold, 23 silver, 32 bronze, and 2 honourable mentions. 13 awards were won in 2021 at “ISEF, the world's largest STEM competiti- on”, marking a historic success. In 2022, four stu- dents with three projects received special awards, and six students with four projects received the Regeneron ISEF Grand Award. All of the students who competed in the 56th International Mende- leev Chemistry Olympiad won medals. In the 6th European Physics Olympiad, held in May and June 2022, four of our students; in the "Asian Phy- sics Olympiad", six of our students competed and brought home awards. Our young scientists, who have been trained to represent our country in in- ternational arenas, continue to proudly carry our flag in all competitions in which they compete. Moreover, scientific and social activities are intro- duced, popular science journals are published and science centres are established, as well as nume- rous grant programmes, such as science fairs, whi- ch reach an estimated 18 million people each year. TUBITAK also organises competitions on national and international levels, reaching an estimated 18 million people each year. With the "TUBITAK popular science journals and books" published to increase scientific literacy in society, scientific and technological breakthroughs are communica- ted to millions of readers of all ages in a manner that is both original and comprehensible. Global Trends and a Risk-Ready R&D and In- novation Ecosystem Special emphasis is placed on the planning of the necessary steps and the development of the te- chnologies that our country requires in order to be "prepared for the risks arising from the global changes and transformations and to turn these ecologies into opportunities." As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, our country has conducted studies on new problem areas and shifting needs with great diligence and speed. In accordance with our President's instructions, the "Presidency's Science, Technology, and Innovation Policies Council" has prepared policy documents in the fields of "Medical Devices, Medicines and Vaccines, Cyber Security, Food Supply Security, and Biosecurity" in order to meet our country's needs with its own resources, thereby ensuring that our nation is "self-sufficient" and "emerges 388 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD stronger from the global crisis" during this time. The work on Medical Devices, Drugs, and Vacci- nes was prepared in tandem with the Presidency's Health and Food Policy Council. In addition, in order to respond rapidly to the risk encountered during the COVID-19 pandemic peri- od, the "COVID-19 Türkiye Platform" was establis- hed under the auspices of the Ministry of Industry and Technology and under the coordination of TUBITAK, and significant research was conduc- ted in the fields of domestic medicine and vaccine. Within the scope of the "COVID-19 Türkiye Plat- form," 436 researchers pursued intensive research in vaccine and medicine development. For instan- ce, the Virus-Like Particles (VLP) vaccine develo- ped through this platform, which is protein-based and safer than other mRNA-type biotechnological vaccines; is one of only six vaccine candidates of the VLP type in the clinical stage worldwide, ac- cording to the current COVID-19 vaccine list of the World Health Organisation. It has a significant level of global competitive edge in this regard. In December 2021, emergency use approval was granted for TURKOVAC, a COVID-19 vaccine de- veloped domestically under the coordination of the Ministry of Health. The intensive care venti- lators, which the entire world was chasing after because of COVID-19, were designed with the Ministry of Industry and Technology's support and incentives and produced under the Ministry's coordination with the cooperation of industrial organisations with R&D centres. This device not only met a need but also resulted in exports and donations. Imported N-95 and N-99 mask filters were developed and licenced locally at the TUBI- TAK Marmara Research Centre for our industry. As part of the rapid support line for SMEs during COVID-19, TUBITAK provided funding for nume- rous projects related to ICU equipment and diag- nostics; masks, medicine, disinfectants, personal protective gear, informatics applications, and vaccines were funded; many of these have already been commercialised. A $5.5 million investment agreement was signed for the mass production of the world's first artificial intelligence COVID-19 diagnostic kit, COVID Nordson, which was deve- loped within the scope of this support. A medium that has been developed as a support for adherent cells to be utilised in the process of vaccine pro- duction has been commercialised for use in the TURKOVAC vaccine. With the experience acquired during the COVID-19 period, the model of doing business together, in which all relevant stakeholders quickly come together and all resources allocated to research, including infrastructure, are used collaboratively, has been applied to other urgent needs in our country. The first "Türkiye Earthquake Platform" was established for the first time under the direc- tion of TUBITAK for earthquake research, with the participation of Disaster and Emergency Manage- ment Presidency, Turkish Naval Forces, TUBITAK MAM, and four different universities. This is the first national marine research project to be carried out in both national and international waters in the Aegean Sea by our country's researchers and institutions, with full national support. A special call from TUBITAK supported 80 earthquake re- search projects involving 394 researchers from 41 different institutions in 2021. Following the muci- lage problem that emerged in our country's Mar- 389 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD mara Sea at the start of 2021 as a result of climate change, the "Marmara Sea Action Plan Scientific and Technical Committee" was formed, with TU- BITAK's active participation, to provide scientific and technical advice to the Marmara Sea Action Plan Coordination Board. Beyond mucilage, this committee addressed the issue in terms of the sustainability of the ecosystem in the Sea of Mar- mara and presented solution proposals to the Co- ordination Board and the Parliamentary Research Commission formed on the subject. Furthermo- re, 153 researchers from 31 different institutions/ organisations collaborated to develop domestic and national solutions in projects supported by TUBITAK under the "Mucilage Research" call with contributions from the "Marmara Sea Action Plan Science and Technical Committee." On the other hand, the "role of social and human sciences in the fight against challenges" affecting social life, such as pandemics, climate change, cy- ber security, and irregular migration, are among the "global risks that are expected to have the gre- atest impact in the coming period." The field of social and human sciences enables us to investi- gate the social consequences of these challenges, which are too complex for a single research dis- cipline to address and necessitate transformative innovations that go beyond conventional approa- ches. In this context, social and human sciences' contribution has become a requirement of output and impact-oriented process management wit- hin the framework of co-development and co-a- chievement in the national R&D and innovation ecosystem. One of the greatest examples reads as: "In TUBITAK's platform and network supports in high technology areas; social impact projects, in which the social effects of the developed techno- logies will be examined concurrently, are required to be carried out within the platforms." Additio- nally, the "Support Programme for Research Proje- cts for Innovative Solutions in Social Sciences and Humanities" is conducted by TUBITAK to support social and human sciences research and develop- ment activities aimed at establishing scientific bases for the development of public policies and revealing the social effects of technological advan- cements. In the meantime, we have recently entered an era known as "dual transformation," in which digital and green transformations affect all systems at the same time. The digital transformation, or the fourth indust- rial revolution, has once again highlighted the importance of data. Today, data is regarded as the most valuable capital. In this context, Türkiye mo- ves quickly and implements digital transformati- on roadmaps. The "Türkiye National Artificial In- telligence Strategy prepared under the leadership of the Ministry of Industry and Technology and the Digital Transformation Office”, was the first step in this direction. Because of the rapid deve- lopment of the field of AI, our country's first na- tional strategy in this field, and the development of strategies in other countries over time, National Artificial Intelligence Strategy has an exploratory approach at its core. The initiative's technology focus has been prepared as an "Artificial Intel- 390 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ligence Technology Roadmap" in collaboration with stakeholders from industry, academia, and the general public "within the Presidency's Scien- ce, Technology and Innovation Policies Council." Within the "Presidency's Science, Technology and Innovation Policies Council," efforts on "policy do- cuments focusing on 5G and Beyond, New Gene- ration Communication Technologies, and Cyber Security" and "Technology Roadmap in Big Data and Cloud Computing, and Cyber Security" were made in the field of digital transformation. The "Roadmap for Connected Life with 5G and Beyond Technologies" and "Digital Transformation in Fi- nance and Commerce Roadmap" were developed within the Ministry of Industry and Technology. The goal of the Relevant Roadmaps is to support technological development in these areas, to inc- rease foreign trade volume and exports of me- dium-high, high-tech products/services in this volume, and to decrease imports. Furthermore, a "Digital Transformation Roadmap in Industry" is being developed. This Roadmap aims to strengt- hen enterprises' infrastructures related to human resources, technology, and technology use when it comes to lean production, digital transformation, quality management, innovative product deve- lopment, participation in the global value cha- in, energy efficiency, and other services that will increase competitiveness. Efforts are being made with relevant stakeholders to ensure effective implementation of the Roadmaps. Today, another main component of countries' eco- nomic development plans is green transformati- on. The European Union aims to reduce carbon emissions by half by 2030 and become the world's first climate-neutral continent by 2050 through the Green Deal. Many countries have announced their own targets in addition to this one. On Sep- tember 27, 2021, our country also announced its 2053 Net Zero Emission Target. Türkiye has taken an important step toward green transformation and growth by joining the Paris Agreement and announcing the net zero emission target, which is referred to as the green development revolution. All relevant institutions in our country are wor- king toward the "zero emissions target for 2053," which is intended to fulfil the obligations arising from the Paris Climate Agreement, which was ap- proved by Türkiye's Grand National Assembly. The "Presidency's Science, Technology and Inno- vation Policies Council" has prepared policy do- cuments in the fields of "Next Generation Nuclear Technologies, Hydrogen Technologies, Waste Re- cycling and Waste-to-Energy Production Techno- logies, Energy Storage Technologies," and "Hemp Technologies" in order to include suggestions that will guide our country's green transformation pro- cess. In addition to making our country stronger in the global competitive environment in critical technologies, the Council’s work includes recom- mendations that will strengthen the production, investment, and employment environment in our country, as well as reduce our foreign dependency in critical areas to zero and increase export rates. The "Mobility Vehicles and Technologies Road- map" efforts, led by the Ministry of Industry and Technology, focused on electric and connected vehicle technologies. Within the scope of these documents, the current global situation has been analysed, and the needs in the fields of mobility have been revealed, as well as strategic targets, policy and critical project proposals, in order to facilitate our country's adaptation to the transfor- mation in these fields. TUBITAK has prepared the "Guideline on Primary R&D and Innovation Issues as part of Harmoni- sation with the European Green Deal" in order to contribute to the fight against climate change and environmental problems in 2021, prioritising the- se areas in all "all R&D, innovation, and entrepre- neurship" grants. Climate Change, Environment and Biodiversity, Clean and Circular Economy, Clean, Accessible, and Safe Energy Supply, Gre- 391 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD en and Sustainable Agriculture, and Sustainable Smart Transport are among the topics covered in this document. The Science and Technology Committee was formed as part of the "Climate Council" meeting in our country in February 2022. "Technological targets for ground-breaking R&D and innova- tion-based solutions have been determined" in the Committee, "in line with our country's 2053 net zero emission target and green development policy," with the purpose of turning the climate change crisis into an opportunity for our country in the medium to long term. “97 experts from uni- versities, the private sector, NGOs, and the general public" took part in the multidisciplinary holistic studies. The identified technological goals are pri- oritised in R&D and innovation grants for acade- mia and industry alike. Furthermore, "Green Growth Technology Road- map for industry" efforts are carried out under the coordination of the Ministry of Industry and Technology and TUBITAK within the scope of the "European Green Deal Action Plan." The related work focuses on "the iron-steel, aluminium, ce- ment, chemicals, plastics, and fertiliser sectors, which are critical for our economy, provide basic inputs to the sectors, and stand out in terms of carbon emissions.” With a focus on science and technology, it is envisioned to make significant contributions to the green transformation of the Turkish economy and industry, establishing sus- tainable growth, protecting and strengthening our country's competitiveness in exports, and thus to our country's vision of being a leader in green de- velopment. Many efforts have also been made in other areas to turn the risks posed by global trends into op- portunities for our country through R&D and in- novation. The Presidency's Science, Technology and Innovation Policies Council carried out the "Smart Life and Health Products and Techno- logies Roadmap" under the leadership of the Mi- nistry of Industry and Technology, as well as the "Technology Roadmap in the fields of Biotech- nological Pharmaceuticals, Advanced Functional Material Technologies, and Engine Technologies.” These documents aim to boost non-import-ba- sed production, employment, and exports in the science and technology axis, as well as to accele- rate export-based economic growth. T ürkiye has made significant progress in industrialisation, one of the most impor- tant elements of economic development and sustainable growth. Today, Türkiye has an advanced manufacturing industry with a diverse range of products, strong international connec- tions and export-oriented production. Increased investments not only increase Türkiye’s produc- tion capacity but also increase employment and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), particularly in industrial output. The manufacturing industry’s share in the GDP increased from 18.7% in 2000 to 22% in 2021. Increases in production capacity also promote a permanent increase in Türkiye's competitiveness in the global market. While Türkiye's share of global exports was 0.90% in 2016, this share was 0.98% in 2020 and 1.05% in 2021. While Türkiye ranked 31st in global exports in 2016, it rose to 29th in 2021. Türkiye has become a significant manufacturing centre in both production and exports due to structural transformations in its manufacturing industry, particularly in the automotive and base metal industries, but also in the machinery and equipment sector. Türkiye ranks first in crude ste- el and household appliance production and fourth in European automotive production. Manufacturing industry exports account for 98% of Türkiye’s industrial sector exports and 94% of its total exports. The competitiveness achieved in the automotive, base metal, clothing, food and textile manufacturing sectors has made Türkiye an important actor in the global export market. Improvements in its competitiveness have led to a seven-fold increase in Türkiye's industrial exports over the last 20 years, with exports reaching 213 billion dollars. The base metal industry ranks first in exports, fol- lowed by automotive, clothing, food and textiles. These five sectors account for 50% of manufactu- ring industry exports. Turkish industry has an important place in deve- loped countries’ supply and value chains. While 41% of exports are made to European Union count- ries, 6.5% of exports are made to the US. Türkiye will remain an important centre for the production of industrial products with its capacity of 333 organised industrial zones, 25 industrial zo- nes, 92 technoparks and 18 free zones. SECTOR-BASED INDUSTRY 394 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Steel Industry Crude steel production increased by 12.71% com- pared to the previous year to 40.36 million ton- nes, reaching an all-time high in 2021. Production at electric arc furnace plants increased by 16.6% to 28.9 million tonnes and at integrated plants by 3.9% to 11.5 million tonnes. With this increase in production, Türkiye maintained its seventh place in the world crude steel production ranking. As of 2021, there are 40 steel production facilities in Türkiye, including three integrated Basic Oxy- gen Furnace (BOF) facilities, 26 Electric Arc Fur- nace (EF) facilities producing from scrap steel and 11 Induction Furnace (IF) facilities. According to 2019 data, the decrease in the produ- ction of EF plants continued to increase steadily in 2020 and 2021. BOF plants also experienced an increase in production in the last two years. China, the world's largest steel producer, deci- ded to focus on its domestic market rather than exports in 2021. In response to this development, 395 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Türkiye took an active role in the Far East, Sout- heast Asia and Latin America markets again and closed last year with record-breaking export per- formance. Compared to the previous year, Türkiye's steel exports increased both in quantity and value in 2021. In 2021, exports increased by 70.7% in value to 25.1 billion dollars and by 16.5% in quantity to 24.7 million tonnes, compared to 14.7 billion dol- lars in value and 21.2 million tonnes in 2020. Furthermore, the steel industry ranked first among the industries that increased their exports the most with this performance and constitu- ted approximately 10% of our country's overall exports. Turkish Steel Industry General View 2018-2021 Turkish Steel Industry 2018-2021 MILLION TONNES Production Consumption Export Import 396 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The production capacity of the iron and steel sec- tor in Türkiye for 2021 was 40.39 million tonnes in EF plants and 13.60 million tonnes in BOF plants, totalling 53.99 million tonnes. The distribution of steel production capacity in Türkiye according to production methods differs from the distribution of world steel production capacity. While world steel production, according to the BOF method, is 72.3%, this rate is 25.2% in Türkiye. At the end of 2021, capacity utilisation rates in Türkiye were 84.3% for BF plants and 71.6% for EF plants. Based on the information on the capaci- ties, production amounts and capacity utilisation rates of iron and steel plants operating in Türkiye, it is revealed that the capacity utilisation rates of iron and steel production plants with BOF techno- logy are higher than those of EF plants. 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 %Change 21/20 %Share 2021 EF+IF 39.256 38.940 39.484 38.298 39.858 40.385 1,3 74,8 BOF 12.250 12.250 12.400 12.400 13.500 13.600 0,7 25,2 TOTAL 51.506 51.190 51.885 50.698 53.358 53.985 1,2 100,0 %CUR 64,4 73,3 71,9 66,6 67,2 74,8 11,3 Crude Steel Production Capacity Utilization Rates in Türkiye (thousand tonnes) Turkish Steel Industry Capacity Utilisation Rates State of Production Method in the Turkish Steel Industry Production Methods in the World Production Methods in Türkiye 397 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Aluminium Industry Türkiye's aluminium sector is one of the most important sectors of the country's industry, with a business volume of nearly 12 billion dollars, high processing capacity and capability, advan- ced production technology and an ever-growing structure. Investments in the sector, particularly in rolling and extrusion products, have resulted in capacities that can compete in global markets, and the sector is a net exporter of these products. The Turkish aluminium sector is currently com- petitive, growing and developing. By exporting many aluminium products to many countries around the world, particularly European, Asian and African countries, the sector is growing in im- portance and development. In the last 15 years, Türkiye's exports of alumini- um products have increased at an average annual rate of 8%, and with its outstanding performance in 2021, it achieved an export of 5.1 billion dollars, a 70% increase over the previous year. Türkiye has become one of the most important suppliers of aluminium products in the region, particularly in the EU, in recent years, owing to its location and the high quality of its products. 54% of all exports in 2020 and 57% in 2021 were made to EU count- ries. In 2021, our exports and imports in the "Alumini- um and items made of aluminium" class in the 76 HS code were 5.10 billion dollars and 6.09 billion dollars, respectively, and the total trade volume of the sector was 11.19 billion dollars. Copper Industry Türkiye's operable copper mineral reserves are 3.8 million tonnes, and the companies engaged in copper mining activities are concentrated in the provinces of Artvin, Siirt, Kastamonu, Trabzon and Çanakkale. Since there is only one refined copper plant in Türkiye, excess copper ore and concentrate are exported. Exports amounted to 250 million dol- lars in 2015 and increased to 305 million dollars in 2020. The only cathode copper production facility in Türkiye is Eti Bakır Co., which started its opera- tions in Samsun in 1973 with a capacity of 42,000 tonnes. The capacity of this plant was increased to 75,000 tonnes, with an additional investment made in 2011. Furthermore, Project Based Support was provided for the establishment of a facility with a production capacity of 15 tonnes of cathode copper and 250 thousand tonnes of DAP fertiliser to be completed in 2024. 398 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Türkiye's exports of copper articles were 1.2 bil- lion dollars in 2015 and increased to 1.6 billion dollars in 2020, and imports increased from 2.3 billion dollars to 3.1 billion dollars. Refined copper and copper alloys (crude) accounted for 68% of total imports with 2.1 billion dollars, and copper wires accounted for 35% of total exports with 569 million dollars. Our country's per capita copper consumption is approximately 5.5 kilograms, and total consump- tion is nearly 500 thousand tonnes. According to the Industry Registry of the Ministry of Industry and Technology data, there are 45 companies operating copper mines in Türkiye, 158 companies in copper production in NACE activity code 24 base metal and 128 companies in copper products in NACE activity code 25. Ap- proximately 15 thousand people are employed in the copper sector, including technicians, civil ser- vants, skilled workers and labourers. Casting Industry Metal Casting Industry is a branch of the industry covering iron casting, steel casting, aluminium injection and casting of other non-ferrous metals. Production for almost every sector, from the smal- lest sized parts to crushers used in tunnelling, from mine mills to ship propellers, is carried out by the metal casting industry. As of 2020, a total of 1,500 entrepreneurs on small, medium and large scales are active in me- tal casting. As of 2020, more than 2 million ton- nes of metal casting production worth more than 6 billion dollars was realised. The metal casting industry has an important place in our country's foreign trade with approximately 5 billion dollars in exports. Germany, Italy, the US, and France are the leading countries among importing countries. The same countries and China are among the countries that this sector imports the most. 399 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Sector 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Export Metal casting industry 3,24 3,36 4,12 4,9 4,9 Import Metal casting industry 1,2 1,5 2,53 2,75 2,87 Sectoral Foreign Trade (billion dollars) The table above shows that the sector's trade volume was 7.8 billion dollars in 2020. Turkish Metal Casting Production Annual Production Quantity Turkish Metal Casting Industry Production Value 400 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Steel Pipe Industry Steel pipe production in Türkiye gained signifi- cant momentum in the early 2000s with invest- ments in the sector. Steel pipe production, which increased continuously from 2000 to 2007, decli- ned in 2008 and 2009 due to the global economic crisis but then increased in tandem with the reco- very in the economy in the following years. With nearly 3.5 million tonnes of steel pipe pro- duction by 2010, Türkiye has become Europe's largest producer of welded steel pipes. Following Türkiye, Italy and Germany produce the most steel pipes in Europe. With 4.57 million tonnes of production in 2021, the steel pipe sector enabled Türkiye to maintain its position as Europe's lea- ding producer of welded steel pipes. Türkiye is the fourth largest producer of welded steel pipes in the world, after China, Russia and South Korea, according to the 2021 world steel pipe production ranking. Given its position in Europe and the world, Türkiye plays an important role in the steel pipe industry. The majority of Türkiye's production consists of small-diameter steel pipes. Large-diameter steel pipes, commonly used in transmission lines for water, oil and natural gas, account for 8.29% of to- tal production. Zinc Industry Today, zinc is the most consumed metal in the world after steel, aluminium and copper. The most important use of zinc is galvanising, which increases the corrosion resistance of iron and ste- el products. Of the total zinc consumption, 50% is used in galvanised steel production, 17% in va- rious alloys, 17% in brass and bronze production, 6% in semi-finished zinc products and zinc oxide production, 6% in the production of various che- micals and the remaining 4% in various fields. It is also used in the casting industry, tire manufac- turing, battery industry, pharmaceutical industry, agricultural sector and pigment production. Zinc deposits in Türkiye have reserves that also contain lead. The most important reserves in our country are located in the Black Sea Region. The Eastern Anatolia and Western Anatolia Region follow the Black Sea Region. Oxide zinc ores are processed domestically to pro- duce electrolytic zinc ingots. Sulphurous ores are exported as enriched zinc-lead ores or concentra- tes. In our country, ingot metallic zinc is produced from ore at the Kayseri ÇİNKOM plant with an an- nual capacity of 30 thousand tonnes and at the Li- near Metal Zinc Plant with a production capacity of 90 thousand tonnes, which started production in the Siirt Organised Industrial Zone in 2021. 401 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Although Türkiye has approximately 0.9% of the world's zinc reserves, it ranks 11th in the world with 2.3 million tonnes of ore production. Türkiye realises approximately 1.8% of the zinc ore produ- ction in the world. Türkiye ranks seventh in the world with 856 thousand tonnes of zinc ore and concentrates exports in 2020, equivalent to 469 million dollars in value. Its imports are 23 thou- sand tonnes with a value of 3.5 million dollars. In Türkiye, approximately 250 thousand tonnes of zinc metal and zinc metal products are consu- med as input in manufacturing and other sectors. In order to meet this consumption, 290 thousand tonnes of zinc metal and zinc metal products were imported in quantity and 710 million dollars in value in 2020. Rail Systems Industry Türkiye has a national railway network of 12,803 km, which includes 1,213 km of high-speed lines and 11,590 km of conventional railway lines. The first high-speed train line was the Ankara-Eskişe- hir HST line, which opened in 2009, followed by the Istanbul and Konya HST lines. The number of passengers carried by high-speed trains (HST) had nearly reached nearly 60 million by the end of 2021. Furthermore, metro, tram, light rail, and suburban operations are carried out in 12 provin- ces, covering a total distance of 830 km and emp- loying 2,890 urban rail vehicles. Türkiye's railway transportation is strategically important in this network, which is centrally lo- cated and connects the Asian and European con- tinents via the transportation network. Baku-Tbi- lisi-Kars (BTK) Railway Line Project and the Silk Railway (Belt and Road Initiative) Project, which provide continuous transportation from China to Europe, where we are located in the middle corri- dor transition, are expected to significantly incre- ase industrial, commercial and logistics activities, as well as freight and passenger traffic, in the ra- ilway sector in the coming years. Investments in high-speed train vehicles and in- frastructure, as well as the increasing number of metro and tramway investments by municipali- ties, contribute significantly to the development of our domestic companies' capabilities and tech- nological capabilities in the railways sector, whi- ch has become a state policy and is supported by incentives. Electric Train Sets (EMU), Diesel Train Sets (DMU), diesel shunting locomotives, diesel-ele- ctric mainline locomotives, diesel hydraulic main line locomotives, electric suburban trains, and 402 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD passenger and freight trains are manufactured with domestic means and national rail system projects in collaboration with TÜRASAŞ, TÜBİ- TAK RUTE, ASELSAN, and other domestic supp- liers. In addition, works on the National High-Spe- ed Train (HSR) Project, which has a top speed of 220 km/h, are continuing. At the same time, Türkiye manufactures metro, tram, light rail system vehicles, freight trains, and wagons, exported to European and Far Eastern countries such as Poland, Romania and Thailand. On the other hand, our railway contracting com- panies continue to work on rail system constructi- on projects in many countries, including Senegal, Qatar, Ethiopia, Ukraine, and Romania. In 2021, our rail systems industry sector (under HS Code 86) had a total foreign trade value of over 400 million dollars, with 216 million dollars in exports and 191 million dollars in imports. Shipbuilding Industry Türkiye's shipbuilding industry has gained a glo- bal competitive advantage in individual classes and tonnages and has established itself as a brand of certain types. Our shipyards, which specialise in the construction of chemical tankers, dry car- go and bulk cargo ships up to 30,000 deadweight tonnes (DWT), and container-class ships with a capacity of up to 2,000 TEU (Twenty-foot Equ- ivalent Unit-20-foot container) containers, have made a name for themselves in recent years in the construction of technologically and environ- mentally friendly ships such as tugboats, ferries, platform support vessels, yachts and mega yachts. Today, our shipyards, which use a tailor-made sys- tem to produce ships specifically for shipowners' requests, are receiving an influx of orders from Northern European countries for ships with full electric and hybrid propulsion systems. Our ship- yards have built ships with cutting-edge techno- logy, including the world's first liquefied natural gas (LNG) fuelled tugboat, the world's first remo- te-controlled tugboat, and the world's first hybrid (LNG+battery) fishing vessel. Our shipyards, on the other hand, serve as the regional hub for ship repair-maintenance-mend, ship conversion, and dry-docking activities. 403 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD In 2003, we had 37 shipyards with a total capacity of 550 thousand DWT; by 2022, the number of shipyards had increased to 84, with a total capa- city of 4.65 million DWT. Ships totalling 165 thou- sand DWT were delivered in 2021, with 29.8 mil- lion DWT maintained and repaired. Furthermore, as of the end of 2021, our country ranks third in the world in terms of mega yacht orders, with 91 projects and roughly 44 thousand gross tonnage orders. In 2021, our total exports in the "Ships and Floa- ting Watercraft and Vehicles" class (89 HS code) were 2.06 billion dollars, while our total imports were 1.20 billion dollars. Electric-Electronics Industry In 2021, Türkiye exported 21.3 billion dollars and imported 31.8 billion dollars in the electrical-ele- ctronics sector, which is important worldwide due to its medium-high and high-tech products. In the sector, which includes a wide range of products, cables, household appliances, electrical applian- ces, transformers, batteries, electric motors, and generators are among the most exported products from Türkiye, while computers, cell phones, pa- nels, and electrical machines are among the most imported. Durable Consumer Goods Industry Türkiye is one of the world's leading manufactu- rers of household appliances. Türkiye produced 34 million household appliances in 2021, ranking first in Europe and third in the world. With exports of 3.6 billion dollars and imports of 0.2 billion dollars, Türkiye is a net exporter, exporting 76% of its 2021 household appliance production. The household appliances sector is very important for the national economy, providing direct employ- ment to 60,000 people and indirect employment to 600,000 people, and it attracts attention due to its R&D potential, the number of patents, and sub-industry strength. Textile and Ready-to-Wear Industry The textile and ready-to-wear industries have a long production chain that begins with fibre and ends with finished garments or articles of use. Both sectors have sub-sectors such as fibre, yarn, weaving, knitting, nonwovens, dye-finishing, re- ady-to-wear, and apparel. Textile sector exports were 16.2 billion dollars in 2021, while imports were 10 billion dollars. Türkiye is the fourth largest exporter in the country-based ranking, accounting for 4.2% of global textile exports in 2021, and the sixth lar- gest exporter, accounting for 3.67% of global re- ady-to-wear exports. Because natural fibres such as cotton and wool are required, the textile industry interacts with agriculture and livestock, as well as the petroche- mical industry due to synthetic fibres. In terms of dyeing and finishing chemicals, the sector intera- cts with the chemical industry, and it is intertwi- 404 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ned with the accessory industry in ready-to-wear clothing and apparel. Furthermore, these indust- ries are technically related to many others, inc- luding automotive, construction, heavy industry and medicine. When product-based export and import figures in the textile sector for 2021 are compared, carpets, home textile products, knitted textiles, textiles made of human-made fibres, technical goods, cot- ton textiles and label/tulle group of products have a positive foreign trade balance. Türkiye maintained its position as the world's se- cond-largest carpet exporter in 2021 (in the sum of machine-made carpets, tufted carpets, and handmade carpets/rugs) in the carpet and floor coverings product group, where our foreign trade balance is positive. Türkiye had an 18.18% share of global carpet and floor coverings exports of 17.82 billion dollars in 2021, with 3.24 billion dollars in exports. When only machine-made carpet exports are con- sidered, Türkiye maintains a commanding lead. Our share of global machine-made carpet exports is 31% (2.74 billion dollars) out of a total of 8.95 bil- lion dollars. Türkiye is the world's fourth largest exporter of home textiles/towels/bathrobes, as well as the fourth largest exporter of knitted textiles. Due to imports (fibre and yarn imports) to meet the de- mand for raw materials and intermediate goods related to textile and ready-to-wear exports, Tür- kiye ranks at the forefront in world textile imports. In 2021, our ready-to-wear sector imports were 1.5 billion dollars, while our exports were 18.30 billi- on dollars, resulting in a 16.8 billion dollar foreign trade surplus. Our imports of outerwear from woven and knit- ted fabrics account for one billion dollars of our ready-to-wear imports. Sock exports in the world amount to 14.23 billion dollars. In terms of global sock exports in 2021, China ranked first with 5.8 billion dollars, Tür- kiye ranked second with 1.3 billion dollars, and Germany ranked third with 0.76 billion dollars. Türkiye is the second largest supplier of hosiery to the EU. Leather and Leather Products Industry The leather industry is a subset of the manufac- turing industry that creates technical goods such as footwear, clothing, accessories, leather goo- ds (bags, suitcases, wallets, belts) and harnesses from bovine, ovine, goat, reptile skins, fur, artifici- al leather, and textile surfaces. Tanning and leather processing, leather goods, leather clothing, fur goods, and footwear are all sub-sectors of the leather products sector. The sector, which is influenced by the livestock sector due to the need for raw leather and fur in manufa- cturing, is also closely related to the leather che- micals sector. Interaction with the logistics, retail and merchandising industries is unavoidable. The primary production of enterprises in the le- ather and leather products sector in Türkiye exhi- bits regional characteristics. • Leather processing enterprises are widely loca- ted in Istanbul-Tuzla, İzmir-Menemen, Tekir- dağ-Çorlu, Uşak, Bolu-Gerede, Balıkesir-Gö- nen and Manisa-Kula, • Footwear enterprises in Istanbul, İzmir, Konya and Gaziantep, • Enterprises manufacturing fur products in Is- tanbul, • Leather craft enterprises in Istanbul and An- kara, • Leather apparel enterprises in Istanbul and İzmir. 405 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • In 2021, the global leather and leather goods sector achieved exports worth 264 billion dol- lars. China, Vietnam, Italy, France, and Germany are the top five countries that stand out in the res- pective sectors. Türkiye has a share of 0.72%in exports with 1.9 billion dollars and ranks 18th in the country-based ranking. In 2021, the sector's imports totalled 250 billion dollars. The US, Germany, China, France, and Italy are the top five countries. In terms of imports, Türkiye ranks 38th with 1.16 billion dollars. According to the trade balance, Türkiye ranks 14th in the sector. 80.0% of 6,557 enterprises in the leather and leather goods sector with total revenue of 22,831,489,752 TL are micro, and 16.6% are small. The number of employees in the sector is 66,785. The capacity utilisation rate of the leather and le- ather goods sector, which was 55.2% in 2020 and 62% in 2021, increased to 65.4% in the first four months of 2022. Kazlıçeşme Leather Goods Research and Deve- lopment Ind. Trade. Co. Ltd is the sector's first and only R&D Centre. Paper Industry Due to the difficulties experienced in accessing raw materials, the supply of raw materials and auxiliary materials through imports, and the inc- rease in production costs the paper industry in our country could not reach a sufficient level of production despite its growth potential, the cons- tantly expanding domestic market and the incre- asing demand. The paper industry is prevalent in nearly every region of our country. Istanbul, İzmir, and Kocaeli stand out in terms of the number of enterprises they have. In 2021, Türkiye imported paper and cardboard, pulp, paper or cardboard products worth $2.7 bil- lion, and paper products accounted for 1% of Tür- kiye's total imports. In the last five years, exports of paper products from Türkiye climbed by 30%, reaching 2.16 billi- on dollars in 2021. Paper and cardboard products were shipped to 177 countries, primarily to the United Kingdom, Iraq, Israel, the US, and Ger- many. The export value increase between 2020- 2021 was 25%, and paper and cardboard products account for 2.25% of Türkiye's overall exports. Türkiye ranked 21st in the global market. The growth of e-commerce and online shopping since 2015 has increased the demand for paper packaging and cardboard. As a result of the pan- demic, cleaning and hygiene became paramount, highlighting the importance of packaging. Pac- kaged products have become more preferred as their content is untouched and protected from the harmful factors of the environment and healthily delivered to the consumer. The demand for pac- king paper, corrugated cardboard, and cardboard increased by 5% in 2020-2021. Again, a 1% increa- se in demand for cleaning and hygiene papers was reported. With the advent of working from home and online training, however, the need for writing 406 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and printing papers, as well as offset papers, dec- reased. The importance of cardboard packaging, which has a high recycling rate, has increased because, thanks to its biodegradability, it dissolves quickly and does not contaminate the environment, even if it remains in nature. With these superior featu- res, it is the most advantageous packaging type in terms of a clean and circular economy, which is the most crucial aspect of the European Green Deal compliance. Furniture Industry The furniture sector includes seats, furniture used in medicine, surgery, dentistry, and veterinary medicine, as well as other furniture with their components and accessories, in addition to matt- resses, bedding, and similar items subsectors. The furniture industry is one of the leading sectors in our country in terms of added value, and it con- tinues to contribute to the economy as one of the industries that export the most domestic resour- ces and is least dependent on imported goods. The revenue of our country's furniture industry, which was 10.8 billion TL in 2010, increased by 5.4 times to 58.8 billion TL in 2020. With a 4.9% share of the manufacturing industry, the furniture industry directly employs 209 thousand people. The exports of the Turkish furniture industry in 2021 increased by 23.3% compared to the previous year and reached 4.2 billion US dollars, while its imports increased by 12.8% and reached 562 mil- lion US dollars. The sector's exports, which were 2.3 billion dollars in 2017, reached 4.2 billion dol- lars, with a growth of 79% between 2017 and 2021. From 2017 to 2021, the furniture industry's foreign trade surplus expanded by 110%, from 1.7 billion to 3.6 billion dollars. According to the data for 2021, the export size of the furniture industry in the world was 234 billion dollars, and Türkiye ranked 11th in the world with its furniture export of 4.2 billion dollars in 2021. Ceramic Industry The ceramic industry is one of the leading sectors of our country in terms of added value. The cera- mic industry makes a significant contribution to the Turkish economy, as it is one of the industries that export the most domestic resources and is le- ast dependent on imported goods. The sector stands out as a major contributor to the construction industry through the ceramic tile and ceramic sanitary ware subsectors. As one of the oldest and fastest-growing industries in Tür- kiye, it improves its products and expands its pro- duct range every year. New production technologies and modern cera- mic production lines used in the world have been established in our country. The Turkish ceramic industry is one of Türkiye's most significant sectors, with a transaction vo- lume of approximately 2 billion dollars and an export exceeding 1.5 billion dollars. The cerami- cs industry provides 40 thousand direct and 330 thousand indirect employment in the Turkish economy. Today, our ceramic tile manufacturers export the- ir products to 113 countries and sanitary ware ma- nufacturers export to 95 countries. Thanks to its ever-growing production capacity, cutting-edge technology investments and high-quality advan- tages, the competitiveness of Turkish ceramics on international markets is also improving. With a 370 million square metres production, Tür- kiye is Europe's second-largest and the world's se- 407 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD venth-largest manufacturer of ceramic tiles and Europe's third- and the world's fifth-largest expor- ter of ceramic tiles. Türkiye is one of the world's largest manufacturers of ceramic sanitary ware. With its high export rates, this sector, which uti- lises primarily domestic inputs, is one of the most important contributors to our country's competi- tiveness. Our country is the largest ceramic sanitary ware producer in Europe with a production of 330 thou- sand tonnes and the leader in ceramic sanitary ware exports in Europe with 167 thousand tonnes. The exports of the ceramics industry in 2021 were worth 1.6 billion dollars, and imports were worth 369 million dollars. Glass Industry The glass industry is one of the main industrial fields that provides input to many sectors. Glass production is a sector that requires modern tech- nology, energy-intensive, large-scale investment and therefore significant (capital-intensive) fi- nancial resources. However, the fact that furna- ces must operate continuously and the renewal, maintenance, modernisation and new capacity investments need high capital requirements are factors that make it difficult to enter the sector. The major companies in the Turkish glass in- dustry are Türkiye Şişe ve Cam Fabrikaları A.Ş. / Şişecam, Düzce Cam, Güral Cam, Park Cam and İzocam companies. Türkiye ranks first in Europe and fifth in the world for flat glass production, se- cond in Europe and third in the world for glasswa- re production, fifth in Europe and the world for glass packaging production, and fourth in Europe and eighth in the world for soda ash production. The best quality of glass is its infinite recyclabi- lity. Generally, glass industry facilities are located in İstanbul, Gebze, Mersin, Kırklareli, and Denizli. Şişecam Group accounts for 72% of our country's industrial capacity. With an abundance of raw materials to be used in the glass industry in our country, domestic produ- ction has been maintained, positively impacting the sector's success on a national and internatio- nal scale. In the glass industry, which plays a significant role in Türkiye's exports and whose export mar- kets constantly expand, domestic demand can be supplied nearly entirely. The Turkish glass industry contributes to the economy through its extensive value chain and economic involvement. Today, in addition to the main glass manufacturers, there are over 12 thou- sand small and medium-scale firms that add va- lue to glass, including processors, decorators and workshops that carry out secondary operations in the sector. The Turkish glass industry creates a significant business volume for these firms. In 2021, glass industry exports totalled $1.4 billi- on, and imports totalled $1.1 billion. 408 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Cement Industry In Türkiye, the sector had 55 integrated units and 21 grinding plants as of 2020. The Turkish cement industry expanded by about 23% following its economic contractions in 2020. The activation of suppressed demand during the past two years ap- peared to be the most significant cause. In 2020, total production was 76.5 million tonnes, and the rate of increase was 27.5%. In 2020, the entire sector's domestic sales were 59.2 million tonnes. Approximately 22.1% of the manufactured cement was exported. In 2020, the per capita consumption of cement was roughly 707 kg. In 2020, the capacity utilisation rate of the sector was calculated as approximately 84%. The sector's capacity utilisation rate was estimated to be roughly 84% in 2020. 2020 was a record-brea- king year for the sector in terms of exports. While the weight of the Middle East and Mediterranean regions, which were traditional export markets, decreased, the weight of the Americas increased. According to TURKSTAT data for 2020, the total exports (cement + clinker) amounted to approxi- mately $1,116 million, representing a 27% increase over the previous year. The clinker export figure in 2019, which was 11.7 million tonnes, increased by 23.7% to 14.4 milli- on tonnes in 2020. In 2020, the cement export of the sector was 17.0 million tonnes. Similarly, if we examine the overall exports in terms of tonnage, exports climbed by 36.6% from 23.0 million ton- nes in 2019 to 31.4 million tonnes in 2020. The US has received the highest cement exports in the past three years. 5.0 million tonnes were exported to the US in 2020. 3.1 million tonnes were expor- ted to the expanding Israeli market. Syria, the champion of recent years, ranked third with 1.3 million tonnes. While the US and Israel accounted for 31% and 19%, respectively, of cement exports, Syria, Haiti, and Libya were also important export markets. While the American continent has been the pri- mary market for cement exports, particularly un- der the influence of the US and Haiti, the Middle East, namely the Asian market, has been the se- cond most important market under the influence of Israel and Syria. While the majority of clinker exports have been sent to African countries, Euro- pe has become an increasingly important market. Most clinker exports have gone to Ghana, Ivory Coast, and Guinea. 72% of exports of clinker have been made to Africa. In 2020, 40% of cement exports went to the Americas, 32% to Asia, 15% to Africa, and 12% to Europe, and the proportion of bulk cement sa- les increased slightly. Domestic sales comprised 44,819,662 tonnes (80.53%) in bulk and 10,833,495 tonnes (19.47%) in bags. Regionally, it was determined that bulk cement sales were preferred more by 86% in our western and central regions. In the eastern regions, the share of bulk sales is around 75%. With its production quality, and R&D centres es- tablished to maintain the sector's healthy deve- 409 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD lopment, training, environmental sensitivity, hu- man and occupational health, and investments, the Turkish cement industry has attained a pro- minent position in the global cement sector. The most important policy of the sector is the imple- mentation of sustainable development goals by addressing environmental issues without redu- cing cement consumption and by maximising all technological opportunities. Private dwelling constructions account for the majority of Türkiye's cement demand. In recent years, the demand for infrastructure construction activities has increased along with the mega pro- jects on the agenda. Major projects such as urban transformation projects and nuclear power plants will also play a significant role in keeping the ce- ment demand alive in the upcoming period. Priva- te dwelling constructions account for the majority of Türkiye's cement demand. In recent years, the demand for infrastructure construction activities has increased along with the mega projects on the agenda. Cement exports of the Turkish cement industry in 2021 increased by 12% compared to the previous year and reached 1.3 billion dollars. The first th- ree countries to which Türkiye exported cement in 2021 were, respectively, the US, Israel and Ivory Coast. According to 2021 data, The United Kingdom, Italy, and France are the top three countries from which Türkiye imports cement. In 2021, Türkiye's imports totalled 7.409 thousand dollars. Automotive industry In the 1950s, with the emphasis on motorways as a government policy, the automotive industry in Türkiye began to assert its influence on the country's economy. Production in the automotive industry, which began in 1954 with the assembly of military jeeps and pickup trucks, proceeded with the assembly of commercial trucks and bu- ses. The first significant automobile manufactu- re started in 1966 with the Anadol model of the OTOSAN company. Automobile production star- ted with OTOSAN, continues to grow with the es- tablishment of the TOFAŞ and RENAULT in 1970, TOYOTA and HYUNDAI ASSAN in the 1990s, and Türkiye's Automobile Joint Venture Group Inc. (TOGG). The new domestic electric car TOGG was introduced to the public on December 27, 2019. Our country has 29 passenger and commercial ve- hicle manufacturers, of which six are automobile manufacturers, 11 commercial vehicle manufac- turers, and 12 tractor manufacturers. According to the 2021 motor vehicle production statistics, our country ranks 13th globally and fourth among European Union countries. According to the 2021 commercial vehicle production figures, our country ranks ninth in the world and first among European Union countries. 782,835 automobiles, 493,305 commercial vehicles, and 72,655 tractors were produced in 2021 out of total production of 1,348,795 vehicles. In addition, a total of 413,723 vehicles, of which 335,897 were automobiles, were imported in 2021. In the same year, the au- tomotive sector exported a total of 937,005 vehic- les, comprising 565,361 automobiles and 371,644 commercial vehicles. As of 2020, the automobile industry employed 192,867 individuals. 410 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Machinery Industry The machinery industry supplies the fundamen- tal inputs for fields such as construction, agri- culture, food production, and mining, as well as providing the foundation of the manufacturing industry. The sector, which is subdivided into 21 subheadings and has a heterogeneous structure, is also essential to the industry's digitalisation process, known as Industry 4.0, in terms of enab- ling modern production processes and directly af- fecting the efficiency of the processes. According to the data from 2020, 18,305 enterp- rises in the machinery sector provided an added value of 41.6 billion TL to the country's economy, with direct employment of 254,900 people. The machinery industry, which had an added va- lue of 4.2 billion TL in 2009 and 5% of the added value in the manufacturing industry, increased this share to 6.5% in 2020. Based on the ratio/con- version of the realised production to the added va- lue, the machinery sector, in other words, in terms of seeing to what extent the production has trans- formed into added value; pharmaceuticals rank fourth right after the production of non-metallic minerals and the manufacture of computers, ele- ctronic and optical products. Despite the disruptions in supply chains in se- veral fields caused by the pandemic, the Turkish machinery industry, which is the leading actor in world trade, managed to increase its exports from 14.9 billion dollars in 2017 to 20.8 billion dollars in 2021. At the end of 2021, our exports increased by 23.7% compared to the same period of the previ- ous year. Based on these numbers, we may conclu- de that 2021 was a prosperous export year for the Turkish machinery industry. In addition, in this period, when its share in Türki- ye's exports reached 9.2% in 2021, the share recei- ved from world machinery trade increased from 3 411 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD per thousand to 9 per thousand. The import cove- rage ratio, which was 32.1% in 2003, was recorded as 53.2% in 2017 and 67.1% in 2021. The machinery industry, which was 34th in the world in 2002, ranked 27th by the end of 2020. Its production volume climbed from 15.2 billion TL in 2009 to 146 billion TL in 2020, while its revenue increased from 16.5 billion TL in 2009 to 159.4 bil- lion TL in 2020. Our machinery imports, which totalled 31.6 billi- on dollars in 2013, were 27.9 billion dollars in 2017 and 30.9 billion dollars at the end of 2021. In 2021, machinery imports comprised 11.4% of overall imports. Our imports in 2021 increased by 22.5% compared to the same period of the previous year. The machinery industry, which climbed from its 34th rank in 2002 to the 27th rank in the world by the end of 2020, increased its production volume from 78.3 billion TL in 2017 to 146 billion TL in 2020 and increased its revenue from 84.8 billion TL in 2017 to 159.4 billion TL in 2020. According to the data from the end of April 2022, in the sector, in which the number of R&D cent- res established is 174, and which is the leader in this field, the number of design centres operating is 36. The R&D expenditures of the sector in 2020 increased by 26% compared to the previous year and reached 1.6 billion TL. According to April 2021 data, the number of Technological Product Expe- rience (TÜR) Certificates issued to the machinery industry is 239, and if a total of 975 documents are considered, the machinery industry ranks second behind the software industry. Pharmaceutical Industry In 2021, the pharmaceutical market in Türkiye reached around 83,2 billion TL. Imports were ap- proximately $7.4 billion, exports were approxima- tely $1.9 billion in the pharmaceutical industry in 2021, and the coverage ratio of exports to imports was 25%. Türkiye is ranked 27th in terms of exports and 25th in terms of imports. According to the results of Türkiye's Top 500 In- dustrial Enterprises research published by the Is- tanbul Chamber of Industry, Abdi İbrahim (89th), Koçak Farma (137th) and Nobel (289th) pharma- ceutical companies, which operate in the field of "Manufacturing of Basic Pharmaceutical Products and Pharmaceutical Materials," were among the top 500 industrial enterprises in 2020. Approximately three-quarters of the 680 compa- nies that make up the Turkish pharmaceutical and medical health products market are companies with domestic capital. Ninety-six pharmaceutical and radiopharmaceutical manufacturing facilities and 11 raw material production facilities produce articles at international standards. The pharma- ceutical industry, with its more than 40 thousand employees, offers more than 12 thousand produ- cts to our country's increasing and ageing popu- lation, and exports are sent to approximately 180 countries. In 2020, a total of 35 reference-listed drugs, 33 of which were chemical and 2 of which were biote- 412 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD chnological, came onto the market. 7 of the 35 pro- ducts in question are manufactured in Türkiye, and just 2 of them have an equivalent. The production of medications used in the treat- ment of Covid 19, which were not produced in our country, started. Research on the development and production of new drugs and domestic vac- cines continues. Preparations are underway for developing two reference-listed biotechnological, 39 biosimilar and one bio-superior drug in our country until 2024. Chemical Industry As of 2020, the chemical industry is among the most important sectors of the country's internali- sation, with a 12% share of total manufacturing in- dustry production and a contribution of approxi- mately 20 billion dollars to exports. In addition, the pharmaceutical industry, which is a subset of the chemical industry, accounts for 9% of the ove- rall exports of the chemical industry. In recent years, international investments in the Turkish chemical industry have increased rapid- ly. STAR Refinery, the largest single investment undertaken by the real sector in Türkiye, has an annual crude oil processing capacity of 10 million tonnes with an investment of 6.3 billion dollars by realising SOCAR Türkiye 's Refinery - Petrochemi- cal integration. In addition, research for large-sca- le petrochemical investments in the Adana-Cey- han region is proceeding swiftly. Our country has 114 GMP (good manufacturing practices) accredited pharmaceutical enterprises (including veterinary pharmaceuticals). Six of the top ten largest pharmaceutical companies are do- mestic, while four are foreign capital. Important Developments in Manufacturing Industry - European Union Green Deal The need for sustainable economic growth is felt in all sectors, including industry, agriculture, transportation, and energy. Important instru- ments in this context include renewable ener- gy, resource efficiency, circular economy, digital transformation, and clean industrial approaches. Our Ministry has begun conducting research on the modernisation and transformation of the energy-and-resource-intensive industrial sectors that will be most affected by the requirements of the European Union Green Deal. To ensure environmental, social, and economic performance improvements in the industrial sec- tor and to create a new competitive industry that provides sustainable goods and services, efforts are being made to prepare road maps for the mo- dernisation of the iron-steel, aluminium, and ce- ment sectors, which are among the European Uni- on Green Deal. The integration of our industry with the internati- onal market, the high level of safety and environ- mental awareness of the products to be supplied to the market, thereby improving the safety of life and property of our citizens, and reducing the consumption of electricity and water are, howe- ver, ensured by the legislative studies conducted 413 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD by the Ministry in consideration of international legislation. In this sense, in the framework of har- monisation with the European Union, commu- niqués regulating the energy labelling and envi- ronmentally friendly design criteria of products are viewed as important regulations implemen- ted in terms of circular economy and resource ef- ficiency. H istorically, our military industry, which dates back to the third century B.C. when the Huns produced double-curved bows with tremendous range and impact power, has been a pioneer in numerous fields, from the Ghaz- navids arming their war elephants to the Seljuks building a navy. And then there was an Ottoman Empire that de- veloped the shipyard industry in its early years, formed Artillery Corps before the European ar- mies; always attached importance to the weapon industry through institutions such as Baruthane (Gunpowder Factories), Tophane-i Amire (Impe- rial Cannon Foundry), and Tersane-i Amire (Im- perial Shipyard), and exported goods in the field of arms industry particularly guns, rifles and ships to the world for centuries. In the first years of the Republic, the defence in- dustry was also a part of the industrial move initi- ated under the leadership of Ghazi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and the efforts of entrepreneurs such as Vecihi Hürkuş, Şakir Zümre, Nuri Demirağ, Nuri Killigil, unfortunately, weakened in the face of in- ternal and external obstacles, and Turkish defence industry later became almost entirely foreign-de- pendent. The necessity of establishing a self-suf- ficient defence industry was once again revealed, particularly by the Cyprus Peace Operation, a pro- cess that at first started as a threat to our country and subsequently continued as an embargo. This process resulted in institutions such as Asel- san, TAI, Havelsan, and eventually Roketsan, whi- ch were established by the foundations to strengt- hen our armed forces, founded with the support and favour of our people. In 1985, during the premiership of Turgut Özal, Defence Industry Development and Support Ad- ministration Office (SaGeB) was founded in order to develop the domestic and modern defence in- dustry and modernise the Turkish Armed Forces. The institution, which was restructured as Under- secretariat for Defence Industries later, focused on international joint programs with domestic production and offset projects until the 2000s. The May 2004 meeting of the Defence Industry Executive Committee, presided over by then-Pri- me Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, marked a turning point with the rejection of ready-made purchases from external resources and the refor- mation of our national defence industry as a pri- ority resource. DEVELOPMENTS IN DEFENCE INDUSTRY 416 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The Undersecretariat for Defence Industries, affi- liated with the Presidency in 2017, was restructu- red under the Presidential System of Government in 2018 and was renamed as Presidency of Defen- ce Industries (SSB). With the support and determined stance of Presi- dent Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, and under the coor- dination of the SSB, our Turkish defence industry; has become one of the most important sectors of our country with its main contractors, subcont- ractors, SMEs, research institutions, universities, unique products developed and exports. In contrast to 2002, when only 62 defence proje- cts were carried out, there are now more than 750 active initiatives. About half of these projects have been initiated in the last five years. While defence projects with a budget of approxi- mately 5.5 billion dollars were carried out in 2002, today, over 75 billion dollars have been reached with the projects whose tender processes conti- nue. While the number of companies functioning in the defence industry was 56 in 2002, today, there are approximately 1,500 companies in that same field. The annual endorsement amount, which used to be 1 billion dollars in the same period, has now increased to 10 billion dollars. Defence and aerospace exports, which amounted to only 248 million dollars in 2002, reached the highest figure in history with 3 billion 224 million dollars as of 2021. While the budget allocated to R&D in the defence industry was only 49 million dollars during the same period, today, it exceeds 1.6 billion dollars annually. 417 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Major Projects of the Turkish Defence Industry Naval Platforms MİLGEM Türkiye is one of the 10 countries in the world that designs, builds and maintains warships. Within the scope of MİLGEM Project, which is one hundred percent domestic and our first national warship, TCG Heybeliada, TCG Büyükada, TCG Burgazada and TCG Kınalıada started to serve for the Turkish Navy. The construction of ISTANBUL, the fifth ship of the MİLGEM Project, which is the first of the I-Class Frigates, the continuation of the ADA Class Corvettes, has begun. The tender pro- cess of MİLGEM 6-7-8, which will be the continu- ation of the frigates, has started. F513 TCG Burgazada 418 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Amphibious Ships The TCG Bayraktar and TCG Sancaktar ships, de- signed and developed with domestic and national resources, will contribute to the representation of Türkiye's naval power in the world's seas with amphibious operations, vehicle and personnel transportation, fire support, and emergency sup- port services when necessary. Both ships were handed over to the Naval Forces Command. L 402 TCG Bayraktar 419 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The Multipurpose Amphibious Assault Ship The construction of the Multipurpose Amphi- bious Assault Ship TCG Anadolu, which can transport at least one battalion in our seas to the crisis regions with its own logistics support, wit- hout the need for main base support, is underway. The ship, where an UAV can take off and land, is scheduled to be delivered in 2022. Türkiye will be one of the few countries with ships of this volume. New-Type Submarine Project The first of our New-Type Submarines, Piri Reis, was launched, and construction of the other sub- marines is still ongoing. With our ships and sub- marines equipped with domestic and national hi- ghest technology weapons and sensors, our navy will be significantly stronger and more deterrent. The deliveries of six New-Type Submarines to our navy is scheduled to start as of 2022. Other Naval Platforms With platforms such as TCG-Ufuk Test and Trai- ning Ship, Logistics Support Ship, Tuzla-class pat- rol boats, Submarine Rescue Mother Ship (MOS- HIP), Fast Patrol Boats, New SAT boats, Control Boats, Emergency Response and Diving Training Boats, MTA Oruç Reis Seismic Exploration Vessel, Coast Guard Search and Rescue Boat, new techno- logies and vital capabilities continue to be acqui- red in our seas. Unmanned Surface Vehicle (USV) Unmanned surface and underwater vehicles are undergoing development in order to extend the capabilities of our nation's unmanned aerial and ground vehicles to the sea. Serial production of the ULAQ armed unmanned surface vehicle has started. The tests of ALBATROS unmanned surfa- ce vehicles continue. TCG Anadolu Multipurpose Amphibious Assault Ship 420 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Land Vehicles ALTAY Main Battle Tank In the ALTAY Project, which arose out of our country's need for modern main battle tanks, the first domestic main battle tank was designed and developed. A contract was signed for the se- rial production of the ALTAY tank. Currently, the installation activities of the infrastructure for the production of tanks and the localisation of impor- ted subsystems are ongoing. Simultaneously, the formation of a national power group is being de- veloped. Within the scope of the FIRAT M60T Project, our inventory tanks were upgraded to the M60TM configuration and modernised in accordance with contemporary technology. In addition, the quali- fication operations for the PULAT Active Protec- tion System were accomplished within the scope of the Project. Efforts have begun to expand the capabilities of Leopard 2A4 tanks in accordance with modern combat conditions. ALTAY Main Battle Tank 421 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Armoured Ground Vehicles Armoured vehicles in various configurations such as Kirpi, Kirpi II, Ejder Yalçın, Pars, Vuran, with high protection and mobility, meeting the opera- tional needs of military units and security forces in all types of regions and terrain conditions, inc- luding urban and rural areas, are now produced locally and nationally by the Turkish defence in- dustry. In addition, the Turkish defence industry has become one of the world's leading land vehic- le manufacturers due to the products it exports worldwide. In order to meet the needs of the Land Forces Command, the delivery of KAPLAN and PARS Weapon Carrier Vehicles has begun. The turrets needed for the domestic and national OMTAS an- ti-tank missiles on the vehicles and the anti-tank missiles in the inventory are also being developed within the scope of the project. The first KIRAÇ vehicles produced within the sco- pe of the New Generation Criminal Investigation Vehicle Project, a first in our country, were delive- red to the Turkish National Police. Ejder Yalçın 422 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGV) Unmanned ground vehicles projects have been initiated in three different categories as light, me- dium and heavy class. The delivery of UGVs of the light and medium classes have begun, while the Heavy Class Unmanned Ground Vehicle project continues. Engine Projects Projects have been initiated for the development and manufacturing of engines and power trans- mission systems for aircrafts, tanks, light armou- red vehicles, helicopters, unmanned aerial vehic- les, and missile systems. The ANKA unmanned aerial vehicle has successfully completed its ma- iden flight with a domestic engine, and research into the engine's various variants continues. The development and testing processes for the Gök- bey turboshaft engine continue. The first proto- types of the BATU tank engine designed for the ALTAY Tank and the UTKU engine and transmis- sion designed for the New Generation of Light Armoured Vehicles have been put into operation. The KTJ3200 Turbojet Engine is scheduled to be delivered for use in SOM and ATMACA missiles for the first time in 2022. The new ARAT Project for Turbojet Engines has been launched. Air Defence System Projects The Sungur Air Defence System, which can be integrated into our land, air and naval platforms with its portable feature, has been developed. The KORKUT Low Altitude Air Defence System was developed to provide air defence for land troops by detecting, identifying and destroying threats Barkan Medium Class Unmanned Ground Vehicle 423 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD at low altitude that pass over medium and high altitude missiles and aircraft, and its mass pro- duction has begun. The naval version, GÖKDE- NİZ Close Air Defence System, is scheduled to be integrated into the ISTANBUL frigate in 2022 for the first time. Hisar air defence systems were de- veloped in order to protect military bases, ports, facilities and units from air threats such as airc- raft, cruise missiles, air-to-ground missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles. HİSAR A+ and HİSAR O+ systems were delivered with all their compo- nents. In addition, the SİPER project was initiated to meet the Long-Range Regional Air and Missile Defence System requirement completely domesti- cally. Ammunition and Missile Projects The development and mass production of missile and rocket systems capable of strategic and tacti- cal surface-to-surface and air-to-surface launches have been realised. The development of missile systems capable of being fired from air-to-air and naval assets to the surface is ongoing. Significant progress has been made in the development pha- se of missile systems for medium and low-altitude air and missile defence. Furthermore, mini smart munitions for launch from platforms with limi- ted payload carrying capacity, such as unmanned aerial vehicles, have been developed, and mass production has begun. In addition, guidance kits designed for conventional bombs to find their tar- gets with pinpoint accuracy are being used effec- tively in the field. Bora, TRLG-230, K+, SOM, SOM-J, Gökdoğan, Bozdoğan, Atmaca, AKYA, KARAOK, OMTAS, UMTAS, MAM-C, MAM-L, Bozok, Precision Gu- idance Kit PGK, Wing Guidance Kit WGK, Laser Guidance Kit LGK, Teber, Bunker Busters and Mi- niature Bomb can be listed as examples of muni- tions developed and produced in this regard. The ÇAKIR project, a new generation cruise missile offering a new concept in this field that can be launched from land, naval and air platforms, has been initiated. Hisar Air Defence System Atmaca Cruise Missile 424 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Laser Weapon System Projects A Centre of Excellence for Laser Technologies was established under the coordination of the Presidency of Defence Industries. The prototype product developed as part of the Development of High Power Laser System Project had its accep- tance procedures completed. The Vehicle Moun- ted Laser System, which was designed as a mobile system, was also approved. The Laser Weapon Systems Procurement Project was launched to procure the ALKA system in a variety of platfor- ms and power levels based on user requirements. Electromagnetic Launch System Projects A Centre of Excellence for the Electromagnetic Launch Technologies was established under the coordination of the Presidency of Defence Indust- ries in order to develop the systems that will be required for national security by bringing toget- her existing domestic capabilities and to under- take a mission that will shape the future with the cooperation and synergy to be created between companies/institutions in this field. Weapon Projects Infantry rifles that can serve seamlessly in all kin- ds of terrain and climatic conditions have been de- signed and produced entirely with domestic and national capabilities, in line with the demands of the Turkish Armed Forces and the requirements of the tactical field. In addition to the various variations based on the MPT-76 design, devices compatible with these rifles, which provide addi- tional benefits such as maintaining day and night operational effectiveness, have also been develo- ped. In addition, the domestically and nationally produced 5.56-mm Infantry Rifle and METEs, the authentic domestic pistol, have been developed and deliveries are ongoing. Also, deliveries of gre- nade launchers compatible with infantry rifles are ongoing. Remote-controlled weapon systems for naval and land platforms were delivered. The 20- mm Cannon Development Project was initiated to develop a 20-mm nose revolver cannon domesti- cally. The preliminary design phase of the cannon system was completed and development activi- ties are ongoing. The 25-mm Land Cannon Project was initiated to domestically produce the cannon system used in 25-mm land platforms. Delive- ries of the first domestic 7.62-mm Machine Guns (PMT 7.62) developed for platforms began in 2021. TG40-BA, the first multiple grenade launcher ca- pable of firing more than one type of ammunition, was developed. Equipment and Fittings Deliveries of locally and domestically developed equipment continue as part of projects to improve the operational safety of our Security Forces and equip them with modern equipment and systems. Various types and features of optical systems (of night, day, and thermal binoculars, sniper scopes, sights, etc.), detectors used in mine and explosive detection, laser range finders, ballistic protective helmets were produced and continue to be deliv- ered in large quantities within the framework of the projects carried out to develop the systems National Infantry Rifle MPT-76 425 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD previously procured from abroad with national capabilities. The systems that will make a differ- ence in the operations of our security forces are being developed in line with their suggestions and demands. Portable Ammunition Systems, which enable uninterrupted firing for 7.62 and 5.56 ma- chine guns, and various ergonomic grenade equip- ment are provided to our security forces. Radar and Electronic Warfare Projects The KORAL project provided significant capabili- ties for blinding electronic communication and radar systems within enemy lines. The KORAL-2 project, a more advanced version of the system, has also been launched. The HAVASOJ project has also begun its aircraft integration, with the goal of achieving a capability that few countries in the world have in this field. The Multi-Purpose Phased Array Radar-ÇAFRAD system is being de- veloped with domestic and national capabilities to detect and track surface and air targets at very long ranges and guide the ship's projectile to the target. Türkiye has now achieved the capability of developing and manufacturing high-tech radars, which only a few countries have. Our electronic communication systems such as KARAKULAK, SANCAK, VURAL and ILGAR have augmented our capabilities in this area. The ASELPOD Advanced Targeting Pod Electro-Optical Reconnaissance, Surveillance and Targeting System for fighter air- craft is now being delivered. Our F-16 aircraft were outfitted with the National Identification Friend or Foe System (IFF Mod-5). The F-16 AESA Nose Radar Development Project began. Electronic support and electronic attack systems, as well as listening and interception systems, are still being delivered as part of various projects. Our security KORAL Electronic Warfare System 426 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD forces also use Mini/Micro UAV Detection Radar Systems. When cameras used in our UCAVs were embargoed from abroad, they were developed and manufactured in our country. Deliveries of our CATS cameras continued in this context. Counter Improvised Explosive Device (IED) Projects Vehicle, backpack and bag-type jammer/blocker systems with different technical specifications were delivered as part of combating improvised explosive devices (IEDs), one of the most dy- namic threat types in domestic and international counter-terrorism activities. In addition, portable jammer systems and detection receivers effective against the IED-laden mini/micro UAVs were de- livered. Next-Generation Communication Technologies It is aimed to develop national software and hard- ware components of the 4.5 G communication system in order to meet the increasing military and civilian data communication needs, and it is expected to reduce foreign dependency on mo- bile communication technologies by increasing national potential and capabilities for 4.5 G tech- nologies. The base stations developed with the ULAK Project have started to serve throughout the country and have been put into use in nearly 2,000 sites so far. 427 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD R&D Activities Within the scope of R&D activities carried out in order to increase the localisation rate of Defence Industry products in advanced technology areas and to localise the technologies of critical systems and subsystems required; studies on additive manufacturing technologies, infrared technolo- gies, laser and electromagnetic, electro-optics and cameras, artificial intelligence and autonomy, broadband mobile communication and warfare systems, energetic materials and CBRN technolo- gies are ongoing. More than 100 R&D projects in various technologies are being carried out in our defence industry. Cyber Security The Turkish Cyber Security Cluster was estab- lished under the coordination of the SSB to meet all public and private, military and civilian cyber security needs with domestic and national solu- tions. 200 member companies of the Cluster pro- duce domestic-national solutions in this field. Also, cyber security trainings are provided to students and teachers in vocational high schools. Furthermore, talented students and start-up com- panies are supported through various competi- tions and programs. U nmanned aerial vehicles, for which Türki- ye was completely dependent on foreign countries for supply previously, are now being designed and produced domestically. The tactical and operational class drones UAVs, BAY- RAKTAR TB2 and ANKAs, in armed and unarmed versions, perform real-time imagery intelligence missions for reconnaissance, surveillance, fixed/ moving target detection, recognition, identifica- tion and tracking, under all conditions, including day and night, and bad weather conditions. ANKA Unmanned Aerial Vehicle DEVELOPMENTS IN AVIATION TECHNOLOGIES 430 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD In addition, serial production has started in the AKINCI TIHA (Attack UAV) project, which will be both the best in its class in the world and make Türkiye one of the three countries in the world that can develop this technology. AKINCI Attack UAV, the first deliveries of which were made, will be able to carry a lot more useful load. Also, the serial production of AKSUNGUR SIHA (Armed UAV), the first delivery of which was made, con- tinues. Striker UAV KARGUs, armed UAV SON- GARs and Rotary Wing Micro UAV SERÇEs have become significant supporters of our security for- ces in the fight against terrorism. AKINCI Attack Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 431 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ALPAGU, the Fixed Wing Intelligent Strike UAV System, will soon be included in this team. In ad- dition, the GPS-independent autonomous Swarm UAV Project KERKES has been launched. Our pro- jects for the execution of swarm system missions with our Micro, Tactical, Operative and Strategic class UAVs and Armed UAVs will also be realised in the coming period. While the development ef- forts for the Bayraktar TB3 Armed UAV, which will take off and land on aircraft carriers, are on- going, work is also underway on the Unmanned Combat Aircraft System MİUS (Bayraktar KIZI- LELMA UCAV). BAYRAKTAR KIZILELMA Unmanned Combat Aircraft 432 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The first deliveries in the GÖKBEY Indigenous Helicopter project, which aims to design and pro- duce a helicopter that can operate effectively in the most challenging climatic conditions and ge- ographies, in the day and night conditions, using national capabilities and capacities in order to meet the training helicopter and light class gene- ral purpose helicopter needs of the Turkish Ar- med Forces and other authorities in need, is plan- ned for 2022. GÖKBEY General Purpose Helicopter 433 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The production of the ATAK helicopter, which was developed to meet the “Attack and Tactical Reconnaissance Helicopter” needs of the secu- rity forces, continues. The Phase-2 version of the ATAK helicopter has started to be delivered. The Heavy Class Attack Helicopter project, which was initiated with the aim of developing a completely domestic new attack helicopter platform that can carry a lot more useful load than the ATAK, equ- ipped with high technology tracking and imaging systems, electronic warfare systems, navigation systems, communication systems and weapon systems, has been launched. ATAK FAZ-2 Attack and Tactical Reconnaissance Helicopter 434 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Prototype aircraft started flying under the Tur- kish Basic and Primary Trainer Aircraft Deve- lopment Project “HÜRKUŞ”. HÜRKUŞ is the first Turkish aircraft to receive type certification from the European Civil Aviation Authority and was designed and developed entirely indigenously in response to increasing training aircraft needs of global civil and military aviation. Serial producti- on activities for the HÜRKUŞ-B, the version with a digital cockpit, and the works for HÜRKUŞ-C, the armed version, are ongoing. Production started in the HÜRJET Project, initiated within the scope of jet training and light attack aircraft. HÜRKUŞ Basic Trainer Aircraft 435 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The project aims to meet the Air Forces Com- mand’s combat aircraft requirement after the 2030s with an indigenous design model domesti- cally. It is targeted to complete the indigenous de- sign activities using the domestic industry to the maximum extent. It is aimed to take the National Combat Aircraft out of the hangar in 2023 and un- veil it to the whole world. Within the scope of the F-16 Structural Improve- ment Project, the structural improvements of F-16 Block-30 aircraft continue. The project aims to increase the structural life of our F-16 aircraft, the main striking element of our Air Force, from 8000 to 12000 hours. In the Erciyes Project, deliveries of C130 E/B transport aircraft, which have under- gone avionic modernisation, continue. National Combat Aircraft (MMU) N umerous global technical advancements render space and the significance of spa- ce technology indispensable. In recent years, Türkiye's momentum in space technology development has been a precursor to future achie- vements in this area. The Turkish Space Agency (TUA) was established in 2018 by Presidential Decree No. 23 in order to coordinate the ongoing space technology efforts in our country under a single roof, represent our country in various space organisations both do- mestically and internationally, and conduct the necessary technical and administrative works on issues such as space technologies and space law. TUA was tasked with drafting the National Spa- ce Programme so that our nation could develop a comprehensive plan for all space-related instituti- ons and organisations. In this line, TUA formula- ted the National Space Programme by collecting feedback from the sector's important institutions and organisations. President Recep Tayyip Erdo- ğan announced it to the world's public opinion on February 9, 2021. Within the purview of the Na- tional Space Programme, the following ten goals have been established: • To make the first contact with the Moon emp- loying the hard landing method in memory of the 100th anniversary of our Republic in 2023; and to reach the Moon by soft landing method in 2028. • To create an internationally competent brand on new-generation satellite production and development • To develop a regional positioning and timing system for Türkiye • To ensure access to space and establish a spa- ce port administration • To increase Türkiye's competence in space by investing in the field defined as space weather and meteorology • To increase Türkiye's efficiency in terms of astronomical observations and follow-up of space objects from the Earth • To further develop the space industry ecosys- tem in Türkiye • To establish the Space Technologies Develop- ment Region • To develop effective and competent human resources in the field of space • To send Turkish citizens to space with a scien- tific mission ADVANCEMENTS IN SPACE TECHNOLOGIES 438 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The National Space Programme is a comprehensi- ve initiative that develops the vision, strategy, ob- jectives, and projects of our country in the sphere of space policy and takes into consideration the developments in the world and our country's pre- sent capabilities in order to carry out these in co- ordination. Türkiye, like many other developed countries, se- eks independent access to the Moon. The Lunar Exploration Programme (AYAP) has been defined as consisting of two stages, with AYAP-1, which is planned to make a hard landing on the lunar surfa- ce, and AYAP-2, which is planned to perform a soft landing. In the first stage, a hard landing on the Moon will be realised by the national, domestic and original spacecraft with the hybrid propulsi- on system to be developed by Türkiye through its own means; and it will be launched in near-earth orbit at the end of 2023 with international coope- ration. AYAP-1 was launched in December 2021, and the preliminary design phase of the spacec- raft and hybrid propulsion system is under way. In the second stage, a soft landing on the Moon is planned with the completion of the domestic launch system that takes the spacecraft into low earth orbit in 2028. Our country has been engaged in satellite techno- logies for more than thirty years and has been inc- reasing its capability in this field over the years. TURKSAT 1B (1994), TURKSAT 1C (1996), TURK- SAT 2A (2001), TURKSAT 3A (2011), TURKSAT 4A (2014), TURKSAT 4B (2015), TURKSAT 5A (2021) communication satellites were launched and took their place in their mission orbits and have beco- me one of the cornerstones of our country's tele- vision and communication infrastructures. Lastly, the TURKSAT 5B (2021) communication satellite was launched in December 2021. Furthermore, many remote sensing satellites, such as BILSAT (2003), RASAT (2011), which is the first remote sensing satellite designed and produced in our country, and our first high-resolution remote sen- sing satellite GOKTURK 2 (2012), developed by the original and domestic means, and GOKTURK 1 (2016) with many work packages made by our country's companies have been developed and put into operation in space and become the eye of our country in space. In addition to these, cubic and tiny satellites de- signed for experimental and scientific purposes have also been developed in our country. The- se include ITUpSAT-1 (2009), TURKSAT-3USAT (2013), Be-EagleSat (2017), HAVELSAT (2017), UBAKUSAT (2018), ASELSAT (2021) and finally, Grizu-263 (2022), which is a PocketQube satellite. Especially some of our universities and compa- nies have included space history into their many mission loads. There are currently ongoing communication sa- tellite and remote sensing satellite works with do- mestic and national means. TURKSAT-6A, which will be our first domestic and national communi- cation satellite, is planned to be launched in the near future, and it is expected that IMECE, a very high-resolution remote sensing satellite project developed with the capabilities of our country, will also take its place among our satellites. Türkiye aspires to create the launch facility inf- rastructure by choosing the best launch site and technology and mature its capability to launch payloads into low earth orbit using domestic and national rockets in order to acquire independent access to space. With the skills it has quickly de- veloped in its projects, Türkiye continues to go forward with great velocity and has a high poten- tial in terms of launch systems and technologies. Roketsan Inc., which conducts projects on liqu- id-fuelled rocket technology, has developed a ro- cket engine that reached an altitude of 136 km in 2020, thanks to its efforts in this field. By the time the Micro-Satellite Launch System (MSLS) Deve- lopment Project is finished in 2026, this rocket 439 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD engine, which was developed as part of it, should be capable of launching a 100 kg payload into low earth orbit at a 400 km altitude. Similar to the rest of the world, investments in the launch industry in our nation are firm and quick in the field of hybrid-fuelled rocket engines. The hybrid-fuelled rocket engines developed by Del- taV Space Technologies Inc. have successfully completed their flight tests. With their different configurations, these engines become capable of responding to market demands as probe rockets that can be used in suborbital tests. Astronomy and astrophysics have undergone significant ad- vancements in our nation in recent years. Since the 2000s, we have greatly boosted our interna- tional publications and articles with Türkiye add- resses submitted to journals covered by SCI. The- se publications prepared as a result of scientific studies are generally based on observations. The Eastern Anatolia Observatory (DAG) Project, which was approved by the Presidency of Strategy and Budget in 2012, will be housed by the Atatürk University in Erzurum and will have an infrared telescope with a mirror diameter of 4 metres. The telescope is anticipated to produce its first light in 2023. University The Project Project Years Erciyes University Erciyes University, Astronomy and Space Sciences Observatory Application and Research Centre 12.8m Radio Telescope 2009- ongoing Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Astrophysics Research Centre and Ulupınar Observatory, 1.2m Optical Telescope 2009- ongoing Atatürk University Eastern Anatolia Observatory (DAG) 2012- ongoing Atatürk University Eastern Anatolia Observatory Focal Plane Instruments and Adaptive Optics System (ODA) and Optomechatronics Research Laboratory (OPAL) 2016- ongoing İstanbul University Eastern Anatolia Observatory Focal Plane Instruments and Adaptive Optics System (DAG-ODA/ IU) 2016- ongoing İstanbul University İstanbul University DAG Focal Plane Instruments Laboratory 2016-2022 İstanbul University Enhanced X-ray Timing and Polarimetry Satellite Project (eXTP) 2021- ongoing Projects carried out in our country in this scope are given in the table below. 440 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Deep space observations have undergone sig- nificant advancements in our nation in recent years. An exoplanet was found around the star HD208897, which is 212 light years from our solar system, in 2017 at the Ankara University Kreiken Observatory as a result of the planet search stu- dies conducted within the framework of a coope- rative international project consisting of Turkish, Japanese, and Russian scientists under the direc- tion of researchers from Ankara University. Additionally, early in 2022, researchers from the Departments of Astronomy and Space Sciences at Ankara University and İstanbul University identi- fied two planets in the Kepler-451 double star sys- tem, 1336 light years from Earth, as part of exop- lanet studies. On December 24, 2018, on the occasion of the cen- tennial of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), Turkish Astronomical Society (TAD) orga- nized events with the slogan "100 Years Under One Sky" and a worldwide star and exoplanet naming campaign was launched under the title "IAU100 NameExoWorlds". The official names of the star with the catalogue designation "WASP-52" and its exoplanet have been established by Türkiye in this activity. The star designated for Türkiye was named "Anatolia", and the exoplanet was named "Göktürk". In addition, our country has recently held numerous related scientific workshops and observation events. The Turkish Astronaut and Science Mission (TABM) is the goal of sending a Turkish citizen into space to conduct scientific research on the 100th anniversary of the Republic of Türkiye. In GOKTURK Reconnaissance and Surveillance Satellite System 441 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD line with this goal, a Turkish citizen will take part in a human space flight for the first time in his- tory and become the first Turkish astronaut. If this mission is successful, Türkiye will have the chance to undertake scientific research using the International Space Station's infrastructure. Along with all of this, until 2030, Türkiye inten- ds to perform considerable research and achieve breakthroughs in the most crucial fields, inclu- ding satellite technologies, regional positioning systems, space weather research, ground obser- vation and tracking of space objects, develop- ment of the space industry ecosystem, and hu- man resource evaluation as part of the National Space Programme. Micro-Satellite Launch System (MSLS) T ürkiye has seen the fastest growth in ener- gy demand among the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations over the past 20 years. During this period, Türkiye ranked second in the world after China in terms of electricity and natural gas demand growth. With 60% of the world's proven oil and gas re- serves nearby, Türkiye has grown to be one of its region's biggest markets for both natural gas and electricity. Diversifying routes and resources in order to inc- rease its energy supply security is one of the main goals of Türkiye's energy strategy. Türkiye also seeks to contribute to regional and global energy security and become a regional energy trade hub. The following are the primary components that make up Türkiye's foreign energy strategy: 1. Ensuring route and resource diversity for the supply of oil and natural gas in light of the ri- sing demand and import dependency, 2. Contributing to regional and international energy security, 3. Becoming a regional energy trade hub, 4. Accounting for social and environmental im- pacts in relation to sustainable development at every stage of the energy chain, 5. Increasing the share of domestic and re- newable energy in electricity production, 6. Including nuclear power in the energy pool. Türkiye's Role in Global Energy Trade Türkiye aims to become a centre of energy trade in its region. Towards this goal, Türkiye has imp- lemented or pioneered the implementation of im- portant natural gas and oil pipeline projects in the region. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipe- line (BTC), South Caucasus Natural Gas Pipeline (SCP), Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum Natural Gas Pipeline (BTE), Türkiye-Greece Natural Gas Interconne- ctor (ITG), Trans Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP) and TurkStream are among these proje- cts. Türkiye's continuing contribution to Europe's energy supply security reached a new level in 2020: Europe's 4th natural gas artery, the Southern Gas Corridor, became a reality thanks to the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP), which was completed at DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF ENERGY 444 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD the end of 2020. The backbone of the Southern Gas Corridor is the Trans Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline (TANAP), which passes through Türkiye. TANAP is expected to reach an annual capacity of 31 billion cubic metres (bcm) by 2026. Another project that has recently contributed to the reinforcement of Türkiye's natural gas supp- ly security is the TurkStream Natural Gas Pipeli- ne project. This project consists of two pipelines, each with a capacity of 15.75 bcm, laid under the Black Sea. The first line supplies natural gas to Türkiye and the second to European countries. Since approximately 3% of the world's oil demand is transported through the Turkish Straits, the Turkish Straits are of significant importance in terms of global energy security. Overview of Türkiye's Energy Sector in General Türkiye's need for energy and natural resources is increasing due to economic growth and populati- on growth. Since 2002, Türkiye's average annual growth in electricity demand has been 5%, ma- king it the OECD member with the fastest growth rate. Türkiye's energy consumption will rise by 50% over the following ten years. According to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, this tendency will persist in the long run. Installed Capacity (Distribution by Energy Sources in Türkiye) Türkiye in the Energy Market Türkiye's electricity demand has increased at an annual rate of about 5% since 2002. In the next decade, electricity demand is projected to climb by about 50 percent. In terms of volume and trade, Türkiye is the third largest electricity market in Europe. Türkiye's installed electricity capacity reached 95.9 GW in 2020 and 99.8 GW in December 2021. natural gas domestic coal hydroelectricity imported coal solar wind other 445 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD An analysis of Türkiye's energy production shows a fourfold increase in 2021 compared to 2001. The majority of this growth is due to the generation capacity for natural gas and hydroelectricity. Fol- lowing these are domestic and imported coal, so- lar and wind energy. The fact that solar and wind energy has increased since 2010 is notable. Studying Türkiye's electricity generation reveals that it doubled in 2021 compared to 2001. Natu- ral gas and hydroelectricity have contributed the most to the quantitative increase in electricity generation capacity during the past two decades. These are followed by domestic and imported coal, wind and solar energy. Private sector investments over the past fifteen ye- ars have contributed significantly to the capacity increase in Türkiye. The share of the private sector in electricity generation rose from 42% in 2002 to 84% in 2021, but the share of facilities operation under build-operate and build-operate-transfer contracts decreased throughout that period. In light of these developments, Türkiye introdu- ced its National Energy and Mining Policy in 2017 in order to restore confidence in the energy sector and update its objectives. The key tenets of this policy are ensuring supply security, localisation, and predictability of market conditions. Türkiye's top priority is to create a mixed energy generati- on model that includes nuclear energy by utilising the potential of domestic and renewable energy sources. The aim of utilising the potential for lo- cal and renewable energy is supported by a policy promoting the local manufacturing of equipment. Additional incentives given for domestically pro- duced renewable energy equipment are an illust- ration of this approach. Furthermore, Türkiye aims to increase the sha- re of domestic and renewable energy sources to two-thirds of its energy generation by 2023. The Renewable Energy Resource Area model has been developed for this purpose. In addition, on Janu- ary 30, 2021, the Renewable Energy Resources Support Mechanism (YEKDEM), which is current- ly being implemented and spans the period from July 1, 2021, to December 31, 2025, was redesigned. Electricity Production (Distribution by Energy Sources in Türkiye) natural gas domestic coal hydroelectricity imported coal solar wind other 446 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Predictability Supply Security Localisation National Energy and Mining Policies 2021 2002 40% 84% The General Secretariat of the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority, which was established in Anka- ra in 1956 to regulate nuclear energy and ensure nuclear safety, was restructured as the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) in 1982, main- taining its function as the regulatory body in the field of nuclear energy. TAEK is responsible for ensuring nuclear safety by licensing and inspec- ting nuclear and radiation-related activities and facilities. The Nuclear Regulatory Authority, whi- ch was established in 2018, assumed these duties from TAEK, whose field of activity became limited to research-development, coordination and sup- port activities in the nuclear field. Turkish Energy, Nuclear and Mineral Research Agency (TENMAK) was founded in 2020. TENMAK gathered the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK), Natio- nal Boron Research Institute (BOREN) and Rare Earth Elements Research Institute (NATEN) ins- titutions under one roof. With this reorganisation, TAEK, BOREN and NATEN have been closed, and it has been decided that any institution or legal document that makes reference to TAEK, BOREN or NATEN shall be presumed to have referred to TENMAK. The new agency has a headquarters lo- cated in Ankara and many units operating under the headquarters. With a wide range of activities and executive pri- vileges, TENMAK has held a strong position. TEN- MAK's mission is 'to serve our country and hu- manity, to increase Türkiye's competitiveness in the fields of energy, mining, ionisation, radiation, particle accelerator and nuclear technology. TEN- MAK has been equipped with a leading authority role in research and development in the fields of energy, minerals, ionisation, radiation, particle ac- celerator, nuclear, boron and rare earth elements. Türkiye has been a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1957 and con- tinues to strengthen its nuclear safety competence through the European Instrument for Nuclear Se- curity Cooperation (INSC). On platforms such as OECD, MDEP, and VVER, Türkiye exchanges ex- pertise and knowledge with other nations. Platfor- ms like these contribute to the development of the nuclear security infrastructure in Türkiye. The Law on Ratification of the Protocol to amend the Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy of 29 July 1960, as amen- ded by the Additional Protocol of 28 January 1964 and by the Protocol of 16 November 1982, entered into force with the Official Gazette No. 31631 of Oc- tober 17, 2021. Türkiye has made significant strides to include nuclear energy in its energy sources in an effort to reduce import dependency and combat climate change. In 2010, Türkiye and the Russian Federati- on signed an intergovernmental agreement for the construction of a nuclear power plant with a ca- pacity of 4800 MW. The second and third nuclear power stations are now undergoing technical eva- 447 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD luations, and it is anticipated that, in the long run, 10% of Türkiye's energy supply will come from nuclear facilities. It should be noted that Türkiye's natural gas in- dustry has also shown steady development. Since the late 1980s, natural gas has been used extensi- vely for electricity generation in Türkiye. Türkiye, which has long-term purchase agreements with the Russian Federation, Algeria, Iran and Azerba- ijan, uses natural gas at an increasing rate. Türki- ye also purchases spot, short and medium-term natural gas and liquefied natural gas (LNG) from the market. Türkiye has very limited domestic gas reserves, and national gas production accounts for less than 1% of total domestic demand. As a result, approximately 99% of natural gas demand is met through imports. However, with the recent disco- very of 540 bcm of natural gas reserves in the Bla- ck Sea, Türkiye intends to reduce import depen- dency while also strengthening supply security. In 2018, Türkiye erected two FSRUs (floating sto- rage and regasification units). Their mission is to raise Türkiye's present natural gas storage ca- pacity from 4.4 bcm to 11 bcm by 2023. Recently, Türkiye began natural gas exploration in its own territorial seas using its own drilling vessels. In addition, wholesale gas market activities began under the Energy Exchange Istanbul (EXIST) on September 1, 2019. Moreover, EXIST launched the natural gas exchange that offers options on Octo- ber 1, 2021. Market participants can evaluate their portfolios more flexibly and benefit from higher prices through option contracts. Türkiye is rich in terms of renewable energy po- tential, which it has increasingly utilised over the past decade. Hydro- and wind energy sources, which have an installed capacity of 31.5 GW and 10.6 GW of energy and constitute the majority of the renewable energy generation, accounted for almost half of the total electricity capacity of 99.8 GW by the end of 2021. Türkiye intends to increase its solar and wind energy generation capacity by 10 GW in over the course of 10 years, from 2017 to 2027. The National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (2017- 2023) seeks to reduce energy consumption by 14% by 2023 through 55 actions targeting major energy sectors, such as buildings, services, transportati- on, industry and technology, agricultural land, and mixed areas. In this regard, savings of 23.9 Mtoe (tonnes of oil equivalent) and investment deman- ds of $10.9 billion are envisaged by 2023. Based on 2017 pricing, cumulative savings by 2033 are ex- pected to amount to $30.2 billion. A part of these savings might be pushed forward until 2040. Thanks to the investments in the field of energy efficiency, it is calculated that $1.2 billion were sa- ved, and employment for 10,687 people was provi- ded between 2017 and 2020. Furthermore, consi- dering the impact of investments on sub-sectors, the economy gained an additional $3.6 billion. By amending the Energy Efficiency Law in 2018, Türkiye eliminated the obstacles to the introduc- tion of Energy Performance Contracts (EPCs) in public buildings. Energy Performance Contracts are also a kind of financing mechanism that is ba- sed on the payment of the initial investment ex- penses of energy efficiency and renewable energy projects, with monetary savings acquired in sub- sequent years. I n line with the policies set forth by the Mi- nistry of Transport and Infrastructure, the Information Technologies and Communica- tions Authority (ICTA) has been responsible for regulating and supervising Türkiye's electronic communications sector since 2000. While servi- ces such as internet, satellite, infrastructure, ra- dio, and fixed voice were monopolised by the sta- te company, similar to other countries, the market began to be liberalised in 2002 upon the founding of the ICTA, monopoly rights were terminated at the start of 2004, and electronic communications services were made available to new operators en- tering the market on the basis of certain rules. To ensure that everyone enjoys the benefits of new technologies, services, and applications and is protected from emerging risks and threats, ICTA continues its initiatives at the international, regi- onal, and national levels, within the perimeters of legal regulations, while taking into account the research of the International Telecommunica- tion Union and European Union. As of 2021, the electronic communications sector in Türkiye has 792 authorised operators in 20 different types of authorisation (Fixed Phone Services, Counseling Services, Shared Radio Services, GMPCS Mobile Phone Services, Infrastructure Operating Servi- ces, GSM-1800 Mobile Phone Onboard Aircraft Services, Satellite Communication Services, In- ternet Service Providers, Virtual Mobile Network Services, Satellite Platform Services, Cable Broad- casting Services, and etc). Mobile services began with second generation (GSM) services in 1994 and quickly spread throu- ghout the country; 3G services were introduced in 2009, followed by 4.5G services in 2016. TT Mobil, Turkcell, and Vodafone currently offer services to a total of 86.3 million mobile subscribers through the mobile communications infrastructures they have established. 80.2 million of the subscribers use 4.5G technology. Currently, three companies, TT Mobil, Turkcell, and Vodafone, provide servi- ces through their established mobile communica- tion infrastructures for a combined total of 86.3 million mobile users. 80.2 million mobile subscri- bers use 4.5G. In recent years, the number of sub- scribers to the fast evolving machine-to-machine communication (M2M) technology has neared 7.4 million. With the 2008 launch of the mobile DEVELOPMENTS IN COMMUNICATIONS SECTOR 450 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD number portability (MNP) service, competition among operators increased and 158 million mobi- le numbers were transferred. In addition, signifi- cant work is being conducted on the domestic and national manufacturing of advanced mobile tech- nologies in our country, and it is planned to tran- sition to 5G technology as a result of the domestic production advancements. With the expiration of Türk Telekom's monopoly right in 2004, fixed-line telephone services have been opened to competition, and 135 authorised operators offer services to approximately 12.3 mil- lion fixed telephone service subscribers in Tür- kiye as of the end of 2021. Number portability in fixed services was also introduced in May 2009, with 2.4 million numbers ported. As fixed and mobile infrastructures spread across the country, voice traffic increased year after year, eventually reaching over 318 billion minutes per year. Türkiye has made significant progress in terms of infrastructure investments and subscriber num- bers for fixed and mobile broadband internet, the service whose importance and prevalence has inc- reased the most in recent years. As a result of the- se efforts, during this period of rapid broadband infrastructure development, the total number of broadband internet subscribers, of which 70.1 mil- lion were mobile and 18.1 million were fixed, sur- passed our country's population of 88.2 million. In addition, the type of service that has seen the greatest improvement in fixed broadband in re- cent years has been fibre-optic internet. While the number of fibre subscribers was around 150 thou- sand in 2010, it has approached 5 million today. This figure means that approximately one out of every four fixed subscribers receives fibre inter- net service. In this context, while the increase rate in our total number of internet subscribers was 7% in 2021, the increase in the number of fibre to the home subscribers approached 30%. Further- more, investments in fibre infrastructure ramped up, and the total fibre network length exceeded 451 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 471 thousand kilometres by the end of 2021. While the number of Cable TV subscribers surpassed 1.4 million, the number of Cable Internet subscribers approached 1.2 million. In our country, there are 88.2 million broadband subscribers. There are 86.3 million mobile subscribers. The length of the fibre - optic line is 471,000 kilo- metres. The Türksat 5A satellite, one of Türkiye's flag-bea- rers in space, became operational in 2021. Then, on December 19, 2021, the Türksat 5B satel- lite was successfully launched into orbit. The sa- tellite, whose orbit transfer process was smoothly completed, has begun operations in July 2022. The first domestic communication satellite, Türk- sat 6A, is still being built and tested at the Turkish Space Systems Integration and Test (USET) Cent- re, which was established on the premises of TAI. It is envisioned to launch the satellite into space in the third quarter of 2023, putting our country among the ten countries capable of producing communication satellites. In 2021, the e-Government Gateway, which was launched in 2008 and currently serves 59.16 mil- lion registered users with 6,568 different types of services through 870 different institutions, has reached an average of 771 million monthly users. Upon the removal of the antennas on Çamlıca Hill, the Çamlıca Television-Radio Tower, which strikingly stands at 369 metres, have begun radio broadcasting. Standing at 312 metres above sea level, Çanakka- le TV-Radio Tower has been completely installed along with a network of pedestrian routes. Making the necessary regulations and inspections as part of safeguarding consumer rights, determi- ning the relevant procedures and principles wit- hin the scope of consumer protection, taking the The Turksat 5A satellite, one of the Turkish flags in space, entered service in 2021. 452 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 453 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD actions stipulated by legislation in case of cont- radiction, and applying sanctions are among the responsibilities of the Information and Communi- cation Technologies Authority (ICTA). Within the framework of ICTA regulations, e-Termination Service, Debt/Credit Inquiry Service, Mobile Line Inquiry Service, and Fixed Line Inquiry Service are provided through the e-Government Gateway in order to provide the services properly, easily and accessible to consumers. In addition, the Con- sumer Complaint Management System provides services for consumers to convey their complaints and demands to the relevant operators under the supervision of the ICTA and to resolve the comp- laints by the operators. Within the scope of advancing internet services, the National Cyber Incident Response Centre (USOM), which was established within the body of ICTA in 2013, in order to identify the threats emerging in the cyber environment against the cyber security of our country, to develop measu- res to mitigate or eliminate the effects of possible cyber-attacks_S and incidents, and to share them with the certain actors. carries out national and international coordination efforts on cyber inci- dents response. With the AVCI, AZAD, and KA- SIRGA projects developed entirely with internal organisational resources by USOM, significant contributions to our national cyber security are made through the detection, monitoring, and pre- vention of vulnerabilities-related risks. 6 Electronic Certificate Service Providers began operations after ICTA issued regulations gover- ning electronic signatures. Furthermore, 8 service providers that meet the requirements of the legislation have begun to operate within the framework of the regulations made by ICTA regarding the authorisation and inspection of Registered E-Mail Service Providers, by virtue of the task assigned to it by law. With the advancement of internet technologies and the regulation of social networks under Law No. 7253 of July 29, 2020 against the abuse of this environment, social network providers uphold their obligation to appoint representatives to our country. Furthermore, the Safe Internet Centre, which was established in 2017 to provide trainings, aware- ness-raising activities, and plans and projects for internet users in society, particularly children and youth, to use internet technologies more consci- ously and effectively, organise face-to-face and online training programmes and seminars with students, teachers and families as part of its ef- forts. All internet service providers offer free filtering services to protect families, young people, and children from harmful content on the Internet through the Safe Internet Service, which became operational in 2011 within the body of ICTA. ICTA also performs the tasks and procedures as- sociated with issuing security certificates for base stations and auditing the electromagnetic field measurements of the base stations for which the security certificate is issued. Institutions/organi- sations authorised by ICTA conduct electromag- netic field compatibility measurements on ele- ctronic communication systems. This service is provided by 36 authorised measurement instituti- ons. The "Base Station Measurement Information" service has made the electromagnetic field mea- surement results of the nearest base station by lo- cation available to citizens via e-Government. Postal services in Türkiye, on the other hand, were liberalised with a legal regulation passed in 2013, and there are 41 service providers in the sector, including the PTT. ECONOMY -- WORLD ECONOMY AND TÜRKIYE -- MULTILATERAL AND REGIONAL RELATIONS -- INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES AND INCENTIVES IN TÜRKIYE D ue to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the world economy underwent a severe supply and demand shock, and the glo- bal economy entered a deep recession. However, the global economy revived in 2021 as a result of increased vaccination rates and expansionary mo- netary and fiscal policies undertaken in developed countries, particularly the United States. With the revival of the economy, an increase in demand was observed in the global economy, and as a result of the disruptions in the global supply chain, there was an increase in demand for our country's products. In 2021, after the pandemic, Türkiye acquired a significant edge by responding fast to the rising demand. In 2021, exports totalled 225.2 billion dollars, a 32.8% rise over the previous year's total. With this amount, the 200-billion-dol- lar threshold has been surpassed, the biggest an- nual export total in history has been achieved, and Türkiye's share of global exports has surpassed 1%. Foreign Trade Between 2013-2021 (Billion $, %) Source: TURKSTAT WORLD ECONOMY AND TÜRKIYE 458 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Imports increased by 23.6% to 271.4 billion dollars in 2021. Thus, in 2021, the foreign trade volume increased by 27.6% compared to the previous year and reached 496.6 billion dollars, and the covera- ge ratio of exports to imports increased by 5.7 po- ints to 83.0%. Excluding energy, the coverage ratio increased by 11.7 points to 98.2%. According to the General Trade System (GTS), Fore- ign trade volume reached 391 billion dollars in 2019, 389 billion dollars in 2020, and 497 billion dollars in 2021. In 2021, exports had a share of 45% with 225 billion dollars, and imports had a share of 55% with 271 billion dollars in total foreign trade volume. Foreign Trade by Sectors According to the international standard industry classification (ISIC Rev.4), agriculture, forestry, and fishing accounted for 3.5% of the exports in 2020, followed by mining at 1.7%, manufacturing at 94.3%, and other sectors at 0.5%. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing are projected to account for 3.2% of exports in 2021, followed by mining at 1.8%, manufacturing at 94.55%, and other indust- ries at 0.5%. While exports increased in 94 out of 97 chapters in 2021 compared to the previous year, the chap- Foreign Trade Between 2013-2021 According to GTS (Billion $) Distribution of Exports by Sector in 2021 Source: TURKSTAT 459 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ters with the highest exports share were 87-Motor Vehicles, 84-Boilers, machinery, mechanical devi- ces and tools, 72- Iron and steel, 85-Electric ma- chinery and devices. 71-Pearls, jewels and metal items, as well as currencies. Intermediate goods exports accounted for 51.14 % of overall exports in 2021, while exports of capital goods accounted for 11.03 %. Considering Türkiye's import structure, it is seen that the share of imports of raw materials (inter- mediate goods) in total imports is quite high and followed by capital goods. In 2021, the share of raw material imports increased by 3.1 points to 77.5% compared to the previous year, and the shares of consumption and capital goods decreased by 1.8 and 1.3 points, respectively, and became 9.2% and 13.3%. Chapters with the Highest Export Share in 2021 Source: TURKSTAT Import Composition Between 2013-2021 Source: TURKSTAT 87- Motor vehicles, tractors, bicycles, motorcycles 84- Boilers, machinery, mechanical devices and tools 72- Iron and steel 85- Elektric machinery and devices, equipment and parts 71- Pearls, jewels, metal items, currencies ■ Raw material (intermediate goods) ■ Consumption goods ■ Capital goods 460 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Foreign Trade by Country and Country Groups With the implementation of the Customs Union in 1996, the trade volume between Türkiye and the EU accelerated, reaching 178.4 billion dollars in 2021, and the EU continued to be Türkiye's most important trade partner. In 2021, the EU ranked first with a 41.3% share of Türkiye's exports total- ling 93.1 billion dollars. The EU accounted for 31.5 % of Türkiye's total imports of 271.4 billion dollars in 2021, totalling 85,4 billion dollars. In 2021, the EU ranked first in terms of Türkiye's imports. In addition, it is evident that the Other Asia country group, which includes East and South East Asian countries, Other Europe (excluding the EU), and Near and Middle East countries account for a significant share of Türkiye's foreign trade. In terms of exports, Near and the Middle East (17%) and Other Europe (14%) follow the EU, while in terms of imports, Other Asia (25.1%) and Other Europe (16.5%) take the lead after the EU. When examining the countries where Türkiye exports the most, it is seen that the EU countries, our most important trade partners, come to the fore. In terms of both exports and imports, Ger- many holds the largest share among these count- ries. In 2021, Germany was first in exports with 19.3 billion dollars and an 8.6% share; it placed third in imports with 21.7 billion dollars and an 8% share. In exports, Germany is followed by the USA with a share of 6.5% and the UK with a share of 6.1%; in imports, China ranked top with a share of 11.9%, and Russia ranked second with a share of 10.7%. Foreign Trade by Major Country Groups in 2021 Source: TURKSTAT Macro-Economic Developments Growth, National Income and Employment The Turkish economy has achieved historically remarkable economic performance over the last two decades. It has undergone a radical structu- ral transformation process, particularly since the 2001 crisis, and has achieved macroeconomic sta- bility. Macro and micro policies were put in place to support stability and growth, and the Turkish economy entered a period of uninterrupted high growth led by the private sector. Despite the glo- bal economic crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic, 461 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Source: TURKSTAT the Turkish economy grew by an annual average of 5.4 % between 2003 and 2021, and by 5.9 % from 2010 to 2021. In 2021, economic growth displayed a balanced outlook, with domestic demand accounting for 6.1 percentage points of growth and net external demand accounting for 4.9 percentage points, thanks to strong export growth. Türkiye's position as a reliable supplier is an important factor sup- porting growth dynamics following the pandemic. The contribution of sustainable components to growth, such as net exports and machinery-equ- ipment investments, strengthened in 2021, and the share of machinery-equipment investments in total investments surpassed 50%. Indeed, the fact that machinery-equipment investments have increased on an annual basis for nine consecutive quarters since the fourth quarter of 2019 has pla- yed a significant role in this trend. As of 2021, Türkiye's GDP was 802.6 billion dol- lars (7 trillion 209 billion TL) and GDP per capita was realised as 9 thousand 539 dollars. The shares of economic sectors in GDP in 2021 were 57.2% in services, 20.6% in industry, 5.8% in agriculture and 5.4% in construction. According to the labour force statistics of Türkiye, the working age population, which was 53 milli- on 394 thousand in 2011, reached 63 million 704 thousand in 2021. While the labour force partici- pation rate was 47.1 % in 2011, it increased to 51.8 % in 2016. While employment was 23 million 166 thousand people in 2011, it increased to 28 million 797 thousand people in 2021. While the foreign trade volume was recorded as 116.6 billion dollars in 2003, this level increased to 391.2 billion dollars in 2019. Even in 2020, when the pandemic had a significant impact on global trade, foreign trade volume was 389.2 billion dol- GDP Growth Rate (%) and Sectoral Contributions (Percentage Points) 462 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD lars and reached a historic high of 496.7 billion dollars in 2021. In 2021, exports accounted for 45 % of the total foreign trade volume with 225.2 billi- on dollars, while imports accounted for 55 % with 271.4 billion dollars. In the said period, exports increased by 32.8 % on an annual basis and diver- ged positively in comparison with other count- ries. In 2021, import growth was relatively limited with 23.6%. Developments in the global markets are monito- red, and cooperation with international organi- zations is maintained in CMB activities and acti- vities for the healthy operation and development of our markets, which operate in an integrated manner with the rest of the world. In this context, the CMB participates actively in the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) committees and working groups, as well as with institutions such as the OECD, EBRD, IMF and World Bank. Foreign Economic Relations and Balance of Payments Foreign Trade Indicators Türkiye's foreign trade volume, which increased rapidly with the development of foreign econo- mic relations after 1980, was 116.6 billion dollars in 2003 and reached 391.2 billion dollars in 2019. Ratio of Exports to Imports The historical average of the ratio of exports to imports in Türkiye is approximately 65 %. While the 2001-2010 average of this ratio was 66.5 %, the 2011-2021 average is 71.4 %. This ratio, which was 61.4 % in 2010, entered an upward trend after 2014 and recorded a significant increase especially af- ter 2018. After reaching 86.0% in 2019, the highest level in the last 30 years, the ratio of exports to im- ports declined to 77.3% in 2020, the year of the glo- bal pandemic. In 2021, this ratio rose to 83% with a strong export performance. Foreign Trade Indicators (Billion Dollars) 464 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD MULTILATERAL AND REGIONAL RELATIONS I n the 21st century, an extremely extensive, diverse, and complicated foreign relations network has emerged in the world. Politics and economic interactions are inextricably in- tertwined in the modern day, and it is widely ac- knowledged that they are in constant interaction. There are several worldwide developments that affect more than one country or all countries, and as a result, efforts to find regional and multilateral solutions to such regional and global issues are expanding. Türkiye, located in one of the world's most strategic regions, is assuming a greater role in this process. Türkiye, which wants to foster regional coop- eration and has pioneered the development of numerous organisations, such as the Economic Cooperation Organisation and the Organisation of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation for this purpose, has also assumed its position in the post-World War II economic order. The goals of our country are to use such cooperation platforms more effectively and create a more stable and pre- dictable legal and economic environment for our companies. Multilateral Relations Following the devastation of the Second World War, countries sought a forum where issues could be debated and resolved collectively in an effort to establish a lasting peace. The United Nations (UN), established as a political platform, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), established to ensure economic stability, are the dominant Looking at the countries to which Türkiye exports the most, it is seen that EU countries stand out as our most important trade partners. 466 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD institutions of multilateral relations since a global political order without an economic basis cannot be sustained. International Bank for Reconstruc- tion and Development (IBRD), also known as the World Bank, and The Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), which was estab- lished to distribute the Marshall aid allocated by the United States of America for the reconstruc- tion of Europe; whose infrastructure had been de- stroyed during World War II; and whose name was later changed to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), stand out in the development section. Bölgesel İlişkiler Regional trade agreements, which were intro- duced as an exception to the World Trade Orga- nization regulations, which form the legal infra- structure of the global trade system, have grown significantly since the 1990s. Currently, preferen- tial trade agreements are used to conduct almost 50% of global trade. With its geography, population, dynamic labour force, rich energy and agricultural resources, tour- ism capabilities, and competitive operating ex- penses, our country has a very great potential for regional cooperation. As a reflection of the economic and commercial leading role played by our country in the region, our bilateral ties with friendly and brotherly countries in the region are strengthened under the umbrella of the Organisation of the Black Sea Eco- nomic Cooperation (BSEC), Developing-8 (D8), Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO) and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), all of which we are founding members. Our country attaches special importance to es- tablishing preferential trade arrangements under these organisations' roofs, especially for develop- ing cooperation in the field of trade. In this re- spect, our country has become a party to all OIC, ECO and D8 Preferential Trade Agreements, and our obligations have been fulfilled. Economic Relations with the EU The Ankara Agreement, which established a "partnership" between Türkiye and the European Union (EU), was signed on September 12, 1963, and entered into force on December 1, 1964. The aim of this Agreement is to promote the continuous and balanced strengthening of trade and economic relations between the Parties while taking full ac- count of the need to ensure accelerated develop- ment of the Turkish economy and to improve the level of employment and the living conditions of the Turkish people. In addition, the Agreement adjudicates the prin- ciples of the Customs Union; agriculture; free movement of goods, persons, capital and services; transportation, competition, harmonisation of legislation with economic and commercial poli- cies; partnership bodies; Türkiye's full member- ship opportunities; resolution of disputes that may occur in the partnership relationship. Ankara Agreement establishes a partnership between Türkiye and the EU that will be com- pleted in three stages: preparatory, transitional 467 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and final. In the period following the completion of the Transitional Stage regulated by the Addi- tional Protocol of the Ankara Agreement, the "fi- nal stage" begins, and this period is based on the "Customs Union" between Türkiye and the EU. With the establishment of the Customs Union on December 31, 1995, the total exports of our coun- try, which was 21.6 billion dollars in 1995, climbed by 941% and reached 225.2 billion dollars as of 2021. During the same period, exports to the EU rose from 10.6 billion dollars to 93.0 billion dol- lars, increasing by 776%. Following the Customs Union, Türkiye's total im- ports increased by 660%, from 35.7 billion dollars to 271.4 billion dollars. During the same period, our country's imports from the EU increased by 437%, from 15.9 billion dollars in 1995 to 85.6 bil- lion dollars in 2021. The trade volume between Türkiye and the EU, which gained great momentum, reached 178.6 billion dollars in 2021, and the EU remained our country's most important trade partner. Our country ranks 6th with a 3.6% share of the total exports to the EU. In 2021, the EU had a share of 41.3% of all of our exports with 93 billion dollars and ranked first in our total exports. Our country ranks sixth in the EU's overall im- ports, with a share of 3.7%, when inter-EU trade is excluded. Additionally, the EU is the top exporter and importer to our country. According to the data for 2021, Türkiye realised 85 billion dollars (31.5% share) of its total imports of 271 billion dollars from the EU. In 2021, the coverage ratio of exports to imports in our country's trade with the EU was 108.7%. Türkiye's Free Trade Agreements Parallel to its inclination to develop networks of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in international trade, and within the framework of the Customs Union, Türkiye concludes comparable agree- ments on the basis of mutual benefit with coun- tries with which the European Union (EU) has concluded FTAs. FTAs are important in terms of developing our foreign trade with neighbouring and surround- ing countries; ensuring that our exporters can compete on equal terms with their competitors in foreign markets, particularly with EU entrepre- neurs; and increasing our country's international competitiveness via mutual investments and joint ventures. In this context, our country is not obliged to accept the precise content of the FTAs signed by the EU, and our industrial and com- mercial policy priorities, as well as our country's sensitivities, are taken into consideration during negotiations. Currently, Türkiye has 22 FTAs in force; namely, EFTA, Israel, Macedonia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Palestine, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Albania, Geor- gia, Montenegro, Serbia, Chile, Mauritius,South Korea, Malaysia, Moldova, Faroe Islands, Singa- pore, Kosovo, Venezuela and the United Kingdom. In order to update the existing FTAs and expand their coverage, the protocols signed for updat- ing the Serbian FTA entered into force on June 1, 2019; the revised Türkiye -Bosnia and Herzegov- ina FTA went into force on August 1, 2021, while the revised Türkiye -EFTA FTA entered into force on October 1, 2021. However, the protocols that re- vised the Türkiye- Montenegro FTA are currently 468 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD undergoing the approval procedure. In addition, it is aimed that negotiations with Georgia and Ma- laysia will conclude soon, and negotiations with Moldova and North Macedonia will begin shortly. On the other hand, negotiations with three coun- tries (Japan, Thailand, and Indonesia) continue actively within the scope of FTA negotiations that have been officially initiated with thirteen coun- tries/country groups. Efforts are being made to ex- pedite the aforementioned processes with other negotiating countries or country groups (Mexico, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Somalia, MERCOSUR, Cameroon, Gulf Cooperation Council, Seychelles and Djibouti). In addition, efforts were undertak- en to initiate FTA negotiations with nine countries or country groups (USA, Canada, India, Vietnam, Central American Countries, African Caribbean Pacific Countries, Libya, Algeria and the Republic of South Africa). International Trade in Services The growth of our country in service exports con- stitutes one of the most important pillars of our reformist economic policies. In this context, the importance of our country's exports, the fourth pillar of our growth strategy, along with invest- ment, production, and employment, grows with each passing day. The services sector is the apple of the eye of the Turkish economy since it generates a net influx of foreign currency, is a source of employment and contributes to the export of products through its multiplier impact. Standing in a pivotal position in the global trade flow, Türkiye manifests itself in the global economy in both the trade of services and goods, making its influence felt even in the farthest regions. Not only our products but also our contracting services, software, TV series, movies, health ser- vices and culture are exported to all corners of the world. Historically, our country has been a net exporter in the service trade. Our service exports, which totalled 14 billion dollars in 2002, hit an all-time high of 62.8 billion dollars in 2019, a record level for the history of the Republic. Despite the adverse conditions caused by the worldwide pandemic, our service exports climbed by 64 % in 2021 com- pared to the previous year, reaching a total of 58 billion dollars. In this context, support programs designed by our country are undertaken within the framework of sector-specific needs, and significant projects are carried out to increase our service exports by working in close contact with service sectors, par- ticularly with sectoral cooperation organisations. As a result of these projects, there is evidence that our country's service exports have increased. Healthcare and Vacation Services Considering the advanced potential of the Turk- ish medical industry, the qualified workforce, the high entrepreneurial spirit, and the exceptional hospitality of the Turkish people, health tourism has been one of Türkiye's target service export sectors since 2012. The number of health tourists visiting Türkiye has increased around six times between 2012 and 2022. It is aimed for Türkiye to be among the leading countries in the world in health tourism through both improving the 469 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD infrastructure for service delivery, strengthening the country's image, and enhancing sectoral pro- motion capabilities by making it easier for health tourists who require a visa to obtain one in about three days, health tourist security provided by the application of complication insurance, air ticket support and other supports together with inten- sive endeavours of the Ministry of Commerce. Overseas Contracting and Engineering Consultancy Services Turkish contractors began their international expansion in 1972 with work in Libya, and by 2002, they had completed 50 billion dollars in work abroad. Turkish contracting firms, which have made significant progress since 2002, have completed 400 billion dollars in work and pro- vide a business volume of more than 30 billion dollars annually. Turkish contracting firms will have completed 425 projects worth 30.7 billion dollars abroad by 2021. When compared to other countries' companies, Turkish contracting com- panies’ technical competence and quality service were critical to their success. Turkish contracting firms contributed to Turkish investors’ trust and reputation by completing prestige projects such as subways, airports, and dams in the countries where they operate. Turkish contractors currently operate in 131 countries, with the following proj- ect distribution: CIS 46.0% (210.5 billion dollars), Middle East 24.9% (113.9 billion dollars), Africa Lakhta Gazprom Centre Project / St. Petersburg – Russia 470 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 17.8% (81.4 billion dollars - Sub-Saharan Africa 5.5%, North Africa 12.2%). According to the inter- nationally recognized ENR's Top 250 Internation- al Contractors List, Türkiye ranked third in terms of the number of companies after China and the United States, and eighth in terms of project rev- enues in 2021, with 40 companies. Cultural Services and Creative Industries The popularity of Turkish TV series has spread beyond the country’s borders and into the global market, thanks to marketing efforts that began in 2007. Turkish TV series are currently exported to over 150 countries worldwide, reaching over 700 million viewers. As a result of this success, Türki- ye now ranks second in TV series exports only to the United States of America (USA). Almost half of our series exports are to the Middle East and North Africa, which are culturally close to us. Be- cause it is a platform for direct promotion, the TV series sector has evolved into a service sector item that supports our goods exports in areas such as food, furniture, carpets, textiles, and jewellery, as well as our service exports in areas such as tour- ism, gastronomy, real estate, and health tourism. On the other hand, while Türkiye's share of the animation sector's market volume is quite limited, it is thought to have significant potential. With the support of our Ministry and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the animation sector is ex- pected to reach the export share of games and TV series. Education and Innovative Services In our country, as in the rest of the world, the edu- cation sector is carefully addressed because it is regarded as a tool of public diplomacy in addition to its direct and indirect contributions to the econ- omy. According to UNESCO data, the number of international students receiving education servic- es in Türkiye in 2019 was 154,505, accounting for 2.5% of global student mobility in 2019. Our coun- try’s success in international student mobility continues, and according to the Council of Higher Education (YÖK) statistics for 2021, the number of international students in our country has reached 224,048. When the data from 2012 (31,170), the time our Ministry began to implement state aid programs specific to service sectors, including education, is compared to the data from 2021 (224,048), it is clear that a more than sevenfold increase has been achieved. The total economic contribution of international students, which in- cludes both tuition fees and living expenses such as transportation, lodging, food and beverages, is critical to our country's service exports. According to the research, education service exports totalled 1.1 billion dollars in 2020 and 1.3 billion dollars in 2021. 471 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • Türkiye ranks second in the world in carpet and hosiery exports and fourth in denim fabric and home textile exports. It ranks se- cond in Europe in textile exports and third in ready-to-wear clot- hing exports. • Türkiye is the world's leading exporter of raisins, dried figs, dried apricots, hazelnuts, bulgur and flour, and ranks second in pasta exports. • Türkiye ranks third in the world in egg and lentil exports, while ranking third in Europe and sixth in the world in citrus exports. • Türkiye ranks third in the world in exports of buses, midibuses and minibuses, and is the second largest exporter of these products to the European Union. • Türkiye is the fifth largest exporter of tractors to the European Uni- on. • Türkiye ranks second in exports to Europe in the household appli- ances sector. • Türkiye ranks fourth in the world and second in the European Uni- on in exports of household dishwashers. • Türkiye ranks fourth in the world and third in the European Union in exports of washing machines. DID YOU KNOW? Investment Incentive System I ncentives channel investment decisions in the desired direction as they provide various advantages. Türkiye generally provides the following advantages to its investors through in- centives: • The Cost of Investment is Reduced: Tax in- centives, cash incentives, investment site allo- cation, bureaucratic facilities reduce the total investment amount. • Financing Burden is Reduced: The financing burden is reduced through low-interest do- mestic and foreign investment loans and inte- rest support. • Investment Profitability is Contributed: In- vestments are sustained profitably during the operation period with practices such as state provision of infrastructure investments, ener- gy support, personnel support, and purchase guarantees. General Incentive System Except for investment subjects that will not be in- centivized or cannot meet the conditions required for incentives, investments above the minimum fixed investment amount and capacities are sup- ported within the scope of the General Incentive System without any regional distinction. VAT exemption, customs duty exemption, income tax withholding support limited to the sixth region, and support for the employer's share of insurance premium for shipbuilding investments are provi- ded in this context. Regional Incentive System Investments are undoubtedly one of the most important policy elements in combating interre- gional development disparities. With the regional incentive system, Türkiye is intended to channel investments to relatively less developed regions by providing more intensive support to these regi- ons in order to distribute investments more fairly across the geography. In regional incentive practi- ces, the sectors to be supported in each province are determined by taking into account the poten- INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES AND INCENTIVES IN TÜRKİYE 474 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD tial and economic scale of the provinces, and aid intensity is differentiated based on the develop- ment levels of the regions. Provinces are divided into six regions, with the most developed ones in the first region. Under the regional incentive system, investments in organized industrial zones and industrial zo- nes, investments with high levels of technology, and investments in certain important investment areas are more intensively supported in Türkiye. Strategic Incentive System Under the strategic investment system, Türkiye encourages investments in the production of in- termediate goods or products with a high reliance on imports. Project-Based Incentive System In the incentive systems mentioned thus far, the production subjects and support intensities are predetermined. However, in order for some speci- fic investments in our country to contribute to our economy, project-based incentives rather than broad-based incentives are required. Within the scope of the project-based incentive system, a pro- ject-specific support package is created by diver- sifying the support elements and determining the intensity of these support elements in accordance with the characteristics of the project. In addition to the supports provided in other sys- tems, this system also provides qualified person- nel support, energy support, grant support, capi- tal contribution, infrastructure support, permit, allocation, license and registration facilities, and public procurement guarantee. International Direct Investments When a company establishes a production facility in another country in order to expand its produc- tion beyond the borders of the country in which it is established or continues its operations by acqu- iring a firm in that country, this is called Internati- onal Direct Investment (IDI). IDI, which is tracked through the balance of payments, consists of ca- pital, which records cross-border capital transa- ctions by firms, other capital, which tracks debt flows between affiliate firm and investor firm, and real estate, which refers to real estate purchased by foreign residents in Türkiye. 475 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The first law governing IDI transactions in Türki- ye, Law No. 5821 on the Encouragement of Foreign Capital Investments, enacted in 1951, was prima- rily designed to promote agricultural mechaniza- tion and capital transfer. The concept of IDI beca- me a target component in policy texts and even development plans in Türkiye, in the 2000s, as it did in international academia and economic ins- titutions. In the field of investment policies, for example, the 2007-2013 development plan states that "foreign direct investments will be encoura- ged". The law currently in force in the field of IDI is the Foreign Direct Investment Law No. 4875 of 2003, which differs significantly from previous regulations. The most significant amendment in this context is Article 3, subparagraph "a" of the Law on freedom to invest and national treatment, which states that “unless stipulated by internatio- nal agreements and other special laws; 1. Foreign investors are free to make foreign di- rect investment in Türkiye, 2. Foreign investors shall be subject to equal tre- atment with domestic investors". Thus, unless otherwise specified by another law or international agreement, IDI has been libera- lized in our country and our investment environ- ment has been fully opened to foreign investors. ENVIRONMENT, URBANISATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE -- INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN COMBATING CLIMATE CHANGE AND TÜRKİYE'S ADAPTATION STRATEGIES -- TÜRKİYE'S COMBAT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE -- NATION’S GARDENS PROJECT -- TRANSITION TO ZERO WASTE AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY POLICY IN TÜRKİYE -- PROTECTED AREAS AND NATURAL HERITAGE -- TÜRKİYE'S URBAN TRANSFORMATION MOBILIZATION -- SOCIAL HOUSING MOBILIZATION IN TÜRKIYE: TOKİ AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF ONE MILLION HOUSES -- RENEWABLE ENERGY C limate change requires taking measures at the global, national and local levels and determining struggle/adaptation strate- gies. The production and economy model that mankind started with the industrial revolution and adopted for the last 150 years has led to glo- bal warming and, subsequently, climate change. Climate change also causes the climate crisis, the effects of which we feel much more profoundly and directly today. Emissions resulting from the use of fossil fuels have been trapping heat in the atmosphere since the beginning of the industrial age. As a result of this situation, average tempera- tures and extreme weather events are increasing worldwide. It is stated that if global greenhouse gas emissions do not decrease, extreme weather events caused by climate change will continue to increase. Severe hurricanes, droughts, floods and overflows, severe heat waves, and extreme clima- tic events that cause damage threaten the life of all living things. Extreme weather events such as wind, rain, snow, hail, humidity, storm, tornado and hurricane, which are effective and observed in a specific location and in a short time (daily, weekly), are the subject of meteorology. According to climate experts, these effects of climate chan- ge will have diverse outcomes worldwide. Clearly, people should adapt to the new weather realities by considering these warnings and strengthening the early warning and protection systems. In this sense, a new era has begun throughout the wor- ld, in which combat against climate change must be waged for the sake of humanity. International cooperation is one of the most critical factors that will help us win this battle. This cooperation effe- ctively contributes to the global struggle as well as in our country and our region and plays a leading role. With the introduction of the Paris Agreement for signature in 2015 and Türkiye's ratification of the Agreement in 2021, the combat against clima- te change has taken on a new dimension in our country and worldwide. The first step towards the Paris Agreement, whose historical background dates back to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in 1992, was the UN Framework Convention on Climate Chan- ge. Over the past thirty years, the whole world has worked on combating and adapting to climate change. A new and historical period in Türkiye's struggle with the motto "cities that eternise our ci- INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN COMBATING CLIMATE CHANGE AND TÜRKİYE'S ADAPTATION STRATEGIES 480 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD vilisation" began at the 76th UN General Assembly, where President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announ- ced to the world public the decision to become a party to the Paris Agreement. In this period, it intensifies its activities with the slogan "clima- te-friendly cities that eternise our civilisation". To achieve the Green Development Revolution and 2053 Net Zero Emission targets, Türkiye is also ta- king steps to maintain international cooperation in the combat against climate change. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the most significant step in combating global climate change. The climate regime was extensively discussed at intergovern- mental conferences in the late 1980s and opened for signature at the 1992 United Nations Conferen- ce on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro. The Convention, which entered into force in 1994 and established the groundwork for international cooperation against climate chan- ge, was signed by 197 countries. The ultimate ob- jective of the UNFCCC is to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. The contract imposes no emission reduction obligations on the parties. Later on, however, the door to enacting regula- tions on emission reduction was opened, and in this context, efforts were launched on a protocol that mandated emission limitation and reduction. General principles of the Convention are "equity, common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, being precautionary, the right and responsibility to promote sustainable development. Article 4 of the Convention regula- tes the obligations of developed countries and ot- her parties listed in Annex I regarding greenhou- se gas emissions. The same article also regulates the financial support obligations of "developed countries and other parties included in Annex II. In this regard, Annex I of the Convention includes countries that were members of the Organizati- on for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1992 and those in transition economies. These countries classified as Non-Annex I Parties are generally developing countries. Although the- se countries have no obligation to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, they will benefit from the support of Annex II countries. Under Article 4 of the Convention, Annex II countries must re- duce their greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, countries included in Annex II of the Con- vention have obligations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and support developing countries. Türkiye and UNFCCC Türkiye ratified the UNFCCC on May 24, 2004, as the 189th party. When Türkiye ratified the UN- FCCC in 1992, it was included in the Annex-I and Annex-II lists of the Convention, together with the developed countries as the founding mem- ber of the OECD. Since the earliest Conferences of the Parties, our country has proposed a shift in its position on various issues. With Decision 26/ CP.7 adopted at the 7th Conference of the Parties (COP7) held in Marrakech in 2001, it was removed from the Annex-II list but remained on the An- nex-I list. In addition to decision number 26/CP.7 on Türkiye, the Conference of the Parties adopted a number of resolutions. Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 as the first step towards clarification of the steps to be taken in the combat against climate change and entered into force in 2005. Among the most pro- minent features that distinguish the Kyoto Proto- col from past international environmental agre- ements are the flexibility mechanisms designed to achieve the reduction target established by the 481 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD protocol and the sanctions to be applied in case of non-compliance. The Kyoto Protocol is regarded as the first international agreement to specify a quantified emission reduction target to Annex I parties. The detailed implementation rules of the protocol were adopted at the COP 7 held in Mar- rakech in 2001. In the process of establishing the international climate regime, the COP 13 held in Bali in 2007 was one of the most important me- etings. After this summit, a process was initiated in which two-way international climate change negotiations were carried out under the titles of "Convention" and "Protocol". Türkiye became a party to the Kyoto Protocol on August 26, 2009. However, when the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, Türkiye, which was not a party to the UNFCCC, was not included in the Annex-B list of the Pro- tocol, which defined the quantified greenhouse gas emission limitations or reduction obligations of the Annex-I Parties. In this regard, Türkiye has no obligation regarding quantified emission redu- ction. The Doha Amendment, adopted for the re- duction in the second commitment period (2012- 2020) of the Kyoto Protocol, also does not impose any obligations on Türkiye. The Paris Agreement The Paris Agreement negotiations started at the COP17 held in Durban in 2011. As a result of these negotiations, the Paris Agreement was adopted at the COP21 held in Paris in 2015. The Paris Agree- ment was opened for signature on April 22, 2016. On the day it was opened for signature, 178 UN- FCCC country parties signed the Agreement. Si- milar to the Kyoto Protocol, the Agreement had to be ratified by 55 UNFCCC country parties respon- sible for 55 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions to enter into force, but this criterion was accomp- lished much more quickly than with the Kyoto Protocol. Thus, the Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4, 2016. 482 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 483 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The Paris Agreement aims to regulate the clima- te regime for the post-2020 period, which is the expiration date of the Kyoto Protocol. Its  long- term goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels. One of the most important features of the agreement is to include all parties in these efforts by emphasising the importance of adaptation to climate change as well as reducing greenhouse gases. Again, unlike the Kyoto Proto- col, it enables developed and developing countries to participate in the mitigation action with the In- tended Nationally Determined Contribution (cli- mate actions promised by the parties). It is emphasised that these statements, delivered in five-year cycles, should be more ambitious than their predecessors. Intended Nationally Determi- ned Contribution includes greenhouse gas reduc- tion goals and actions to achieve these goals. The Paris Agreement's emphasis on the princip- les of equity, common but differentiated respon- sibilities, and respective capabilities shows the general boundaries of its connection with the UNFCCC. The biggest difference between the Pa- ris Agreement and the previous agreement and protocol is the absence of Additional Country classification. However, developed and develo- ping countries have different obligations under the reduction or financing provisions. In this way, developed countries provide support to develo- ping countries in terms of financing, technology transfer and capacity building. However, it also breaks new ground by encouraging the voluntary contributions of other parties. In a multilateral environmental agreement for the first time, the acknowledgement of "human rights" is one of the most significant aspects of the Paris Agreement. With the Paris Agreement, a framework for en- hanced transparency (Enhanced Transparency Framework) was established for governments. In this context, beginning in 2024, countries are ex- pected to report openly on their actions and prog- ress regarding climate change mitigation, adapta- tion measures, and support supplied or received. Intense negotiations were conducted during the course of the Agreement's discussion to ensure that the unique situations of Türkiye were reflec- ted in the text of the Agreement or in the decision numbered 1/CP.21 that adopted the Agreement. On the final day of the conference, after the COP21 Presidency pledged to work on the solution to Türkiye's concern, the agreement was approved by a unanimous vote. Türkiye adopted the Paris Agreement in 2015 on the condition that its de- mand for access to financial and technological support under the new climate regime was met, and signed the agreement on April 22, 2016, no- ting verbally that it was a developing country. T ürkiye's accession to the UNFCCC as the 189th party and its ratification of the Paris Agreement, as well as the development of policies to address the challenges arising from cli- mate change and adaptation to the new process, stems from its geographical and strategic location. Especially in recent years, it is seen that the num- ber, duration and severity of meteorological disas- ters have increased with the effect of changing cli- matic conditions, and some types of disasters that were not seen frequently before have begun to occur. The number, duration and severity of me- teorological disasters are increasing in our coun- try located in the Mediterranean basin. Research on adaptation to the effects of climate change has accelerated in our country as a result of the fact that the meteorological-induced extreme weather events, whose number and frequency have in- creased in recent years, cause serious loss of life and property due to the effects of climate change, and the economic, social and environmental dam- ages of climate change become visible. Ratification of the Paris Agreement Our country's ratification of the Paris Agreement has been a turning point in its fight against cli- mate change. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan de- clared that we would ratify the Paris Agreement at the 76th session of the United Nations General As- sembly on September 21, 2021, under conditions favourable to our country. This declaration shows that we are working diligently to combat climate change in the international arena and on all plat- forms and that climate diplomacy is successfully carried out in a manner befitting of our country. Moreover, these initiatives demonstrate our sin- cerity and sensitivity regarding the climate issue. In his statement following the cabinet meeting on September 27, 2021, President Erdoğan declared the 2053 Net Zero Emissions target for Türkiye. Following this statement, the Paris Agreement signed in 2016 was unanimously approved by our Veteran Parliament. Thus, a new historical period has begun for our country and our common home, the world. One of the main goals is to make Tür- kiye the most important actor in the fight against global climate change by standing with the op- pressed and the victims in the belief that a fairer world is possible. Ensuring sustainable develop- ment through the Green Development Initiative on the one hand and successfully achieving the 2053 Net Zero Emissions target on the other are the fundamental principles adopted to attain this goal. TÜRKİYE'S COMBAT AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE 486 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Changing the Name of the Ministry and Institutional Reforms on the Road to Transformation Additionally, revolutionary and fundamental structural reforms are implemented to combat climate change and achieve our goals. The initial step is to rename the Ministry of Environment and Urbanisation as the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation, and Climate Change (MEUCC). In addition, with the establishment of the Climate Change and Adaptation Coordination Board, the Directorate of Climate Change and the Environ- ment Agency, the institutional organisation that would meet the needs of the new period was es- tablished. These revolutionary institutional re- forms adopted for our common home, our world, will strengthen our country's fight against climate change, which causes profound changes in all fields, from education to culture, economy to agri- culture, industry and urbanisation. Preparation of Climate Change Action Plans With the Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan prepared to combat climate change, adaptation targets for sectors that will be affected by climate change have been established. Under the coordi- nation of the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisa- tion, and Climate Change, activities to update the medium and long-term targets for 2030 and 2053 have begun. Disasters induced by climate change also required taking region-specific measures. In this context, Regional Climate Change Action Plans, which include current and projected climate change im- pacts and remedies for solutions, have been de- veloped, and regional fragility analysis has been initiated in order to improve them. These analyses will also serve as the foundation for city-scale Lo- cal Climate Change Action Plans. In this context, four metropolitan municipalities (Konya, Muğla, Sakarya, and Samsun) were chosen as pilot prov- inces, and impact/vulnerability and risk analysis studies were initiated for these provinces. The aim is for other municipalities to prepare and disseminate Local Climate Change Action Plans. Türkiye’s National Climate Portal One of the goals for developing early warning sys- tems in the fight against climate change is to estab- lish a Climate Portal. In accordance with this goal, it is planned to establish disaster early warning systems in all 81 provinces, natural areas and city centres. With this system, our citizens living close 487 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD to potential disaster areas will be informed rap- idly, and the safety of life and property will be en- sured at the highest level. Thus, it will be ensured that all stakeholders, who are central to national and local climate change adaptation policies and activities, can access content and information on climate change from a central location and that it will serve as a guide for decision-makers. Climate Ambassadors Movement An important initiative was launched in October 2021 in line with Türkiye's 2053 net zero emis- sion target and green development policy. In his speech at İzmir Dokuz Eylül University, our Min- ister of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change, Murat Kurum, called for our youth to be a part of Türkiye's green transformation. Following this call, our Ministry established official contacts with all universities throughout Türkiye, and the "Climate Envoys Movement" project was imple- mented. During this process, all 209 universities designated their Climate Envoys to represent them and formally notified our Ministry. Climate Envoys of the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change will be the pio- neers of green transformation by playing an active role in the process of making universities green and climate-friendly. Also, the Ministry supports the Climate Envoys; • To work together with national and interna- tional institutions/organisations/associations in line with Türkiye's climate change and en- vironmental policies, strategies and actions, • To lead the establishment of student com- munities/clubs that will carry out activities on the environment and climate in the higher education institutions they represent and to carry out activities within the community, • To organise training and awareness activities such as courses, seminars, conferences, and panels in order to contribute to increasing en- vironmental awareness and sensitivity about climate change in society, • To carry out activities, prepare projects, or- ganise events, extend practices in order to achieve Türkiye's 2053 net zero emission tar- get and green development policy and partici- pate in related activities. Several activities have been carried out with 209 Climate Envoys of our country. One of these is Türkiye's first Youth Statement on Climate Change, which was drafted by 30 Climate Envoys on behalf of all Climate Envoys as part of Türki- ye's first Climate Council. During the declaration process, youth voiced their opinions on climate change, which were then announced at the Cli- mate Council. Since its beginning, our Climate Envoys have penned not only papers but also con- ducted research tours, made publications to en- hance awareness of climate change in society, and participated in efforts to strengthen the national and international climate struggle. Cooperating with Climate Envoys, the Ministry has also encouraged the establishment of climate clubs at each university. Our Climate Envoys' proj- ects to combat climate change within their clubs are supported by the Ministry and assisted in the development of new ideas. With the participation of thousands of student volunteers in these clubs, it is intended to rapidly and effectively spread the fight against the climate crisis among our youth. Regarding the "Climate Envoys Movement" proj- ect, the Ministry considers that young people are an integral part of the decision-making process and that it is crucial to collaborate with them. By collaborating with national and international organisations and prioritising the participation 488 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD of Climate Envoys in climate change negotiation processes, it is intended to strengthen the youth perspective. The participation of our country's Climate Envoys in the Conference of the Parties, which will be held for the 27th time this year as part of the United Na- tions Framework Convention on Climate Change, and their presentation at the Türkiye Pavilion are one of the most important steps in the implemen- tation of this Project. This participation, which will be held for the first time in Türkiye's history this year, will be long-term. Thus, this movement will become a significant component of the green development revolution and will benefit not only the national but also the global climate struggle. Financing the Combat Against Climate Change Significant efforts are being made to address the challenges associated with climate change through the construction of climate-friendly cit- ies. In this context, the following objectives have been identified as primary: • Constructing buildings and residences with green roof designs that are water-and-energy- efficient, compatible with zero waste, equipped with smart systems, • Equipping the infrastructure with systems that will reduce the loss and leakage rate and constructing rainwater-collecting streets, • Diversifying social zones, including the na- tion’s gardens, the number of which is rising day by day and crowned with the Atatürk Air- port Nation's Garden, huge schools, health fa- cilities, biking and walking trails, • Ultimately, establishing human-centred, peo- ple-oriented cities that match the aspirations of our people, encompassing all these prin- ciples. Climate Council The Climate Council was organised by the Min- istry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change between February 21-25, 2022, in Konya, with a large number of participants. Giant sink- holes, numbering over 600, and water derivation in Lake Akşehir and Lake Tuz due to the drought have rendered Konya one of the cities that have felt the severe effects of the climate crisis the most in every field. In this respect, holding the Climate Council in Konya has a different meaning in terms of symbolising our fight against climate change. The participation of over one thousand, including individuals from public institutions, the private sector, and universities, as well as scientists, art- ists, merchants, farmers, the business world and non-governmental organisations and young cli- mate ambassadors, bodes well for the future. Addressing the issues that will ensure the sustain- able development of our country as well as dis- cussing the topics such as providing greenhouse gas reduction in all sectors, identifying climate change adaptation policies, science and tech- 489 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD nology, green finance and carbon pricing, local authorities, migration, fair transition, and other social policies, seven different committees have successfully completed their studies at the Cli- mate Council. In addition to these studies, a new awareness emerged through organising panels covering highly rich contents with local and for- eign experts about Paris Agreement and the inter- national process in the climate regime, green pol- icy, science and technology, international finance, those who change first, strengthening the climate action at local levels, green deal and transforma- tion in the industry. At the Council, Türkiye's new roadmap was also announced in seven different areas. Seventy-six decisions from the Climate Council Final Declaration, totalling 217 decisions, were designated as priority areas. It will be a reference point for threat and risk man- agement, strengthening insurance and finance systems against climate change-related disasters, solutions to preserve natural spaces and restore the degraded ecosystem. It will provide a method to our academy and our business world to devel- op carbon capture technologies and high-perfor- mance, innovative material designs that provide energy efficiency to reach low-carbon production. Türkiye on the Road to Green Development The Consultation Meeting, Türkiye on the road to Green Development, held in Antalya between February 4-6, 2022, should be considered as one of the steps taken toward the struggle and adapta- tion process. The 10-point final declaration, issued following the Consultation Meeting and contain- 490 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ing the basic principles to be followed, served as a guide for the roadmap. The primary goals were to amend the Zoning Law in accordance with the new process, draft the Climate Law, transfer re- sources to municipalities, spread the zero-waste project and increase the recovery rate, improve and spread the deposit management system, and ensure energy efficiency in buildings, mobilise youth employment, and expand protected areas and urban green spaces. As a result; With the aforementioned documents, agree- ments and contracts, Türkiye's committed and determined attempts to combat climate change have turned into a policy within the context of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's vision, "Tür- kiye should place the Green Development Initia- tive at the centre of all its efforts, inspired by its ancient culture". In order to achieve the 2053 Net Zero Emissions target and to effectively combat climate change, the following principles should be implemented; • To strengthen our ecological and natural capi- tal by protecting it. • To promote green innovation and the use of green technologies. • To increase low-emission, green industrial production in science and industry. • To promote clean energy techniques and re- newable energy systems in energy. • To be extremely sensitive to how land is used for urban planning and to use pre-zoned con- struction areas for real estate development fre- quently. • To maximise the use of green space in all zon- ing plans. • To protect agricultural lands and increase sus- tainable agricultural practices. • To reduce urban consumption and waste and promote the use of recycled materials in pro- duction. • To develop mechanisms to incentivise the sep- aration of domestic solid waste at source and wastewater reuse. • To transform existing buildings into green, develop new building designs with green solu- tions, and choose building locations with the utmost efficiency and productivity. • To maximise water efficiency solutions and green construction materials and technologies in buildings. 491 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD E ven though modern cities, which have served humanity for centuries and are where humanity produces its goods, are re- garded as the subject of multiple disciplines, the communication between people and their envi- ronment has always been at the centre of cities and urban culture. In line with our urban planning tra- ditions, our cities are designed to provide integrity with nature, with a view that always prioritises people and nature. The need for public spaces and green spaces has increased as a result of the fast- growing urban population and the development of industrial areas in city centres. Due to the rap- idly increasing urban population and the develop- ment of industrial areas in city centres, the need for public spaces and green spaces has increased. Expanding green spaces where people may in- teract with nature, one of the fundamental com- ponents of development, is crucial for improving urban living conditions. There is a production of projects that aim to improve the quality of life and draw attention to environmental factors by offer- ing solutions to the problems caused by ecologi- cal and social changes in the world. The Nation’s Gardens Projects are among the most significant steps our country has recently made in urbanism. Today, protecting the interaction between people and nature, particularly in city centres, and ex- panding the quantity of green space per capita in cities in tandem with population growth play a significant role in our urban planning policies. Taksim Nation's Garden, built in 1869, Kısıklı Na- tion's Gardens, Sarıkaya Nation's Garden, and Sul- tanahmet Nation's Garden, opened in 1870, were the first examples of the nation's  garden, which emerged as a result of the efforts made for the socialisation of the people and the improvement of quality of life after the Tanzimat Period in our history. One of the symbolic green spaces of the Republican era was Ulus Nation's Garden, which is in Ankara, the capital, across from the First Parliament Building. Today, the decision made by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to "establish Nation's Gardens in our cities to improve the qual- ity of life and adapt to climate change within the framework of the green city vision",  on May 23, 2018, seeks to expand green spaces. Nation's gardens have been established in many areas with varying usage criteria (stadiums, mili- tary areas, closed airports, etc.) thanks to trans- formations made in accordance with environ- mentally friendly project designs. Stadiums in NATION’S GARDENS PROJECT 494 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Samsun Canik, Batman, Sakarya, Sivas, Trabzon Avni Aker, Eskişehir, Diyarbakır Yenişehir, Mer- sin, Kocaeli Derince, Gaziantep, Giresun, Hatay, and Ankara Cebeci were replaced with "nation’s gardens" to restore function to areas that have lost their qualifications due to capacity and/or density across the country. The nation's gardens have provided a new dimen- sion to the healthy growth of our cities as a result of the necessity for and awareness of a planned intervention to physically minimise both global warming and disaster risks as much as possible, and even brought a breath of fresh air to the devel- opment of the country. To enhance the quality of urban life for citizens, Türkiye launched the largest Nation's Gardens Project in the country's history in 2018. The Elev- enth Development Plan (2019–2023)'s "Liveable Cities, Sustainable Environment" section states that "Nation’s Gardens will be expanded in 81 provinces to create healthy living spaces, improve urban green space standards, and improve quality of life, and the Nation's Gardens will be construct- ed over an area of 81 million m2 by 2023 with the financing provided by the Ministry of Environ- ment, Urbanisation and Climate Change, Hous- ing Development Administration of the Republic of Türkiye (TOKİ), İLBANK and municipalities." To achieve this goal as of the specified date, a sig- nificant mobilisation for the establishment of new recreation areas that contribute to the urban space with original landscaping that reflects the histori- cal and cultural characteristics of the cities as well as the creation of green spaces with aesthetic, eco- logical, sustainable, and high recreational value, has begun in our country. The nation's gardens serve as both a gathering place for the city during disasters, particularly earthquakes, and a place for citizens to socialise. During the planning and projection phases of the nation’s gardens, the size of the city and the population density are taken into account, and since the minimum area size is vital, projects are created in public areas of at least 15,000 m2. The location of the nation's gar- dens is chosen according to the accessibility and transportation facilities in the city. The nation's gardens are designed in a way that supports the ecology of the city as well as other areas and cre- ates green axes across the city. Planning for the nation's gardens in the city is also executed in a manner that integrates with eco- logical corridor efforts that span 22 provinces and over 100 municipalities. With an approach that grows and increases the extent of the protected area into the cities, not away from the cities, these efforts are exerted across our country. Following the principle "healthy city for all", it is intended to make green spaces more accessible to all citizens across the country. Within the scope of the projects, social and cultur- al facilities such as coffee houses, libraries, tea gar- In Istanbul, the city with the highest brand value in Türkiye, approximately 5 million m2 of living space, which can be visited by one million people a day, is being transformed into a Nation's Garden. 495 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD dens, observation terraces, kiosks, art workshops, picnic areas, barrier-free parks, jogging, walking tracks, and bicycle paths are included. This way, new sites are created where citizens can socialize and spend productive time with family outside the home. In the National parks, Care is taken to ensure that structures and structural landscaping are designed following the land's natural slope. Within the scope of the target of 81 million m2 of nation gardens in 81 provinces to be completed in 2023, 447 nation gardens on an area of 67 million 756 thousand 900 m2 in 81 regions are under con- struction under the coordination of the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization. While TOKİ is building 217 nation gardens, nation gardens are also being constructed by local governments, Emlak Konut and İlbank. On the 98th anniversary of the founding of our Republic, the Capital City National Garden was inaugurated in Ankara with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's participation. Essential living space was created in the cen- ter of Ankara, accessible to everyone. 94% of the Capital City National Garden, which has an area of 700 thousand m2, has been arranged as green and open space, a natural habitat has been cre- ated with biological ponds and water elements, and it has been enriched with 10,133 qualified trees and plant species consisting of 83 different species. The project area also includes a large area where state ceremonies, special day and week cel- ebrations, and festivities can be held. A national café rich in content, playgrounds for children, art workshops, a conference hall, sports fields, an ice rink, and an open-air cinema have been designed. In addition, marketplaces were built where our people will have the opportunity to mingle, where regional cultures will be introduced, and local products can be exhibited. On May 29, 2022, on the anniversary of the Con- quest, the first saplings will be planted in the first phase, which is approximately 2 million m2, and it is planned to create a green corridor in Is- tanbul, the heart of history and civilization. This area will be enriched with 145,300 qualified tree 496 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD species, including historical olive trees, and social facilities where many activities such as education, culture, and sports can be carried out. In addi- tion, it is aimed to enable sportive activities with the bicycle paths built within the Atatürk Airport National Garden and to support environmentalist approaches throughout the country. The effects of global warming on climate change and the damage it causes to the ecosystem have made mandatory investments in public transpor- tation networks and the use of environmentally friendly vehicles. Due to the traffic density in city centers, activating and expanding micromobil- ity and developing an environmentally friendly transportation network is essential in terms of economic and social health. Bicycle lanes and parking areas have started to be built with infra- structure and superstructure works, and action plans have been prepared to facilitate the trans- portation of bicycle users in city centers. As the nation gardens project, which has been realized in Türkiye in recent years, spreads to all cities in waves, the amount of green space per capita will increase in the coming period, new living spaces will be increased, and citizens will be able to live in touch with nature. Ecological corridors that will support the ecosys- tem and contribute to minimizing the adverse ef- fects of global climate change are being expanded across the country. In addition to natural envi- ronmental corridors, new artificial ecological cor- ridors will be built to connect our natural nature areas, national parks, national gardens, and green areas in the city. Ecological corridors make signifi- cant contributions to environmental integrity and public health. "World Environment Day" has been celebrated on June 5 since the United Nations Conference on the Environment in 1972 to raise environmental protection awareness. To raise environmental awareness in our country, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announced the first Türkiye Environ- ment Week in 2022. During Environment Week, panels and exhibitions were held to discuss our responsibilities for a livable world; celebrations 497 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD were held in Ankara Başkent National Garden on June 5, Environment Day; and environmental activities were organized for children. As areas where these activities were held, the nation gar- dens were also activated as an area where state- nation meetings were held, and traditions were kept alive following the spirit of Environment Week. With this awareness and responsibility and understanding that "the wisest act of man is the act of building a city," Türkiye aims to transfer this wisdom to future generations by building our cit- ies with green natural areas as an integral part. I n an era of sustainability where the concept of garbage has been replaced by waste and waste material has been replaced by alternative raw materials, the Zero Waste Movement, launched in 2017 under the auspices of First Lady Emine Er- doğan, is one of the vision projects realized by the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Cli- mate Change. The zero waste project, which has yielded effective results in a short period of time and is supported at the highest level, overlaps with numerous disciplines horizontally and ser- ves as the foundation for Türkiye's transition to a new economic model. The key to success in this new model, called the circular economy, is transforming waste into raw materials, or more precisely, a resource. This pro- cess is also one of the most effective tools in the simultaneous fight against climate change. The- refore, Türkiye's zero waste policy must be un- derstood and supported to leave a cleaner world and a healthier and more livable environment for our children. Hence, it is of great importance for all parties to cooperate, to develop and imp- lement green and circular economy strategies, develop and disseminate technologies and pro- jects suitable for the green economy, strengthen institutional and financial capacity, to raise awa- reness of developments in environmental and economic fields, to establish long-term cooperati- on with non-governmental organizations, muni- cipalities, finance and business world, chambers of industry and commerce, universities, media, research institutions and to implement the zero The key to success in this new model, called the circular economy, is transforming waste into raw materials, or rather into a resource. TRANSITION TO ZERO WASTE AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY POLICY IN TÜRKİYE 500 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD waste approach that has been spreading in waves since 2017. Zero Waste and Circular Economy Technological innovations that emerged with the industrial revolution, increasing population, and urbanization led to the differentiation of living standards and consumption habits, thus causing more waste to be generated than in the past. This situation also leads to air, water, and soil pollution that threatens all living things, especially the dep- letion of our natural resources, balance disrupti- on, and climate change. Environmental problems such as air and water pollution, solid and hazar- dous waste generation, soil degradation, defores- tation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity know no borders. They pose a severe threat to the safety, health, and productivity of people, species, and food security. Given this situation, the impor- tance of policies and strategies developed for the efficient use of natural resources is understood. These policies and strategies to protect the en- vironment and combat environmental pollution must align with the existing economic system, support sustainable development and econo- mic growth, encourage investments and increase employment. It is seen that a substantial portion of our waste is recyclable waste that can be recycled into raw materials and new products. However, many re- cyclable wastes go to landfills, are buried, and our resources, which are raw materials, are dest- royed. The spread and adoption of the zero waste approach, also known as an environmentalist life model, throughout the country aims to eliminate environmental pollution while also adding value to the economy, supplying quality raw materials, increasing investment and employment, and re- ducing the amount of waste going to landfills by ensuring that wastes are collected separately at the source. In today's world, environmental issues affect every aspect of our lives, especially urbanism, eco- nomy, development, technology, agriculture and food, water resources, human rights, health, and tourism. As a result, environmental problems and the environmental policies created in response to them are also seriously shaping the economic, development, and energy policy areas of the 21st century. Green economy, also known as circular economy, is considered by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) as an approach that increases social equality and welfare while significant- ly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. In this process, the importance of the transition from the short-term linear economy model with a "take-use-dispose" approach to the long-term circular economy with a "prevent-re- duce-reuse-recycle" approach has increased even more while minimizing waste generation. One of the basic principles of the circular economy approach is the inclusion of waste as raw material in production processes. This way, by substituting waste for natural resources, the amount of waste is reduced while protecting our natural resources. Therefore, increasing resource efficiency in the 501 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD transition to a green economy and using waste as a resource at this point is an essential element of the circular economy approach. Based on this approach, the zero waste project, which is a criti- cal step in our country, aims to leave a clean and developed Türkiye and a livable world to future generations with the vision of preventing waste, reducing waste generation, avoid wastage, and collecting waste separately at its source, saving raw materials and energy by ensuring that these wastes are seen as a value and recycled, and pre- venting the disposal of our resources in landfills. Türkiye's Zero Waste Journey Zero Waste is a waste management philosophy that includes preventing waste, using resources more efficiently, preventing or minimizing waste generation by reviewing the causes of waste ge- neration, and if waste is generated, collecting it separately at its source and ensuring its recovery. Waste, the main problem of many countries in the world, is at the forefront of the work carried out diligently in our country. The project has be- come a national policy with the inclusion of the zero waste approach in national strategy and po- licy documents, particularly the 11th Development Plan and the Medium and Long Term Program. The zero waste legal regulation was implemented with the publication of the regulation in 2019. The "Zero Waste Project" by the Ministry of Envi- ronment, Urbanisation and Climate Change was launched on September 26, 2017. Established un- der the auspices of First Lady Emine Erdoğan, the Zero Waste Project was first implemented at the Presidential Complex and the Directorate General of Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Cli- mate Change. Efforts were initiated to spread the project throughout Türkiye. It was aimed to ex- pand zero waste practices to include households, and the duties and responsibilities of institutions and organizations and the private sector were de- termined. First of all, it should be noted that the Zero Waste Project is based on a participatory ap- proach to bring all stakeholders together and fo- cuses on promoting the principle of volunteerism. In this context; • Local administrations and other voluntary organizations establishing zero waste mana- gement systems are given Zero Waste Certifi- cates. • Zero Waste Information System was establis- hed to monitor the system. • Recycling Participation Fee was introduced to provide financial resources for the develop- ment of waste management infrastructure. • The use of waste or recycled materials from waste has been made mandatory. • Mandatory deposits were introduced for pac- kaging specified by the Ministry. • Eleven Zero Waste Implementation Guides and Provincial Zero Waste Management Plans for 81 provinces have been developed as a gu- ideline. • In 103 municipalities, 30 of which are provin- cial municipalities, Waste Management Centre were built, along with 1,909 mobile waste col- lecting centres. • In 131 thousand institution buildings, the zero waste system has been implemented. • Zero waste systems were established and ex- panded in almost all OIZs, airports, ports, ter- minals, fuel stations, shopping malls, and cha- in markets. • Since the start of the project, 13.7 million peop- le have received zero waste training. 502 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD 503 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD The environmental and economic contribution to the objective of a livable world will be made with the further dissemination of circular economy practises in our country and the execution of the zero waste vision throughout the country, begin- ning with households. With the practice of char- ging for the use of plastic bags, which aroused a lot of interest in society, plastic bags decreased by approximately 65% in 2019, 2020, and 2021. Con- sequently, 550,000 tonnes of plastic waste genera- ted from plastic bags has been prevented. In addi- tion, the import of plastic raw materials required for the production of plastic bags in our country was prevented, approximately 3.8 billion TL was saved, and 22,746 tonnes of greenhouse gas emis- sions were prevented. Since the implementation started in 2017, a total of 33.8 million tonnes of recyclable waste, including 20.4 million tonnes of paper-cardboard, 5.4 million tonnes of plastic, 2.3 million tonnes of glass, 0.5 million tonnes of metal, and 5.2 million tonnes of organic and other recyc- lable wastes, have been processed by enterprises licensed by the Ministry of Environment, Urbani- sation and Climate Change and brought into the economy. The transformation of wastewater treatment plants into an income-generating economic re- source is an integral component of the zero waste economy. As a result of the studies carried out, the wastewater rate was increased to 3.5%. It is aimed to increase this rate to 5% in 2023 and 15% in 2030 by expanding wastewater treatment, biological treatment, and membrane technologies. The col- lected wastes resulted in an economic gain of 62.2 billion TL, 530 million kWh of energy savings, 572 million m3 of water savings, 69 million m3 of landfill space savings, and 3.9 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions have been prevented, 347 million trees, 87 million barrels of oil and 650 million tonnes of raw materials were saved. Again, while the domestic waste generated in our country was around 17 million tonnes in 1995, this amount exceeded 32 million tonnes in 2018. In 2023, this amount is estimated to exceed 38 million tonnes. The recovery rate, which was 13% when the Zero Waste Project started, was increased to 27.2%. It is aimed to increase this rate to 35% in 2023. By 2035, with a targeted 60% recovery rate, 90 bil- lion TL will be contributed to our economy, and employment opportunities will be created for 200 thousand citizens. When the 60% recycling rate is reached, we will be among the top 10 countries in the world. Environment Agency and Deposit Management System The Turkish Environment Agency was establis- hed in 2020 to prevent environmental pollution and ensure the protection, improvement, and de- velopment of green areas for systematic and ho- listic waste management. Deposit Management System practices carried out within the Agency have started. In this context, the first pilot study was carried out in Kızılcahamam, Ankara, to tran- sition to the deposit management system. The The recovery rate, which was 13% when the Zero Waste Project started, was increased to 27.2%. It is aimed to increase this rate to 35% in 2023. 504 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD main objective is to make this system widespre- ad throughout our country and put it into the service of our citizens in 2023. A deposit, defined as a security deposit in economics, which me- ans the money taken for the container of a good sold with its container and returned to the buyer when the container is returned, is an effective and traditional savings system. With the full compli- ance of our citizens with the deposit return sys- tem, 20,600 tonnes fewer greenhouse gases will be emitted annually. This will save 10 percent of Istanbul's annual energy consumption and twice the daily oil consumption of Türkiye. If this sys- tem is implemented effectively and efficiently, it will contribute approximately 100 billion TL to our economy in 20 years and provide employ- ment opportunities for 12 thousand citizens. At the same time, it will lead to a significant decrease in the costs of our municipalities to carry out envi- ronmental services. It will also prevent the pollu- tion caused by waste bottles seen in many places, from rural areas to picnic areas, from forest areas to beaches and towns. Zero Waste Blue Given that Türkiye is surrounded by seas on th- ree sides, the Zero Waste Blue Movement was es- tablished under the auspices of First Lady Emine Erdoğan to ensure the effectiveness of the Zero Waste movement in maritime areas. The project's main objectives are to prevent terrestrial pollution elements that directly or indirectly reach the sea and pollution caused by maritime transportation. The Blue Plan for 2053 is being prepared to prote- ct the blue areas of this heavenly homeland that is Türkiye, which is surrounded by seas on three sides and has dozens of lakes and rivers. In this context, wastewater treatment plants serving in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions and faci- lities providing services for the reception of waste from ships are continuously monitored. The number of waste reception facilities opera- ting to prevent waste discharge from ships into the sea has reached 324 in this process. According to current data, a total of 122 thousand tonnes of marine litter was collected and disposed of. In addition, the term of Presidency of the Bu- reau of the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention was handed over to Türkiye as a re- sult of a meeting held in December 2021 as part of COP22 and attended by 21 Mediterranean count- ries. To solve the mucilage problem in the Marmara Sea, a 22-article Marmara Sea Action Plan prepa- red with a participatory approach was announced on June 6, 2021. One of the most important steps taken in this regard is the decision of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to recognize the Marmara Sea as a Special Environmental Protection Area (SEPA) with a sustainable protection approach. Of course, in addition to this, extensive work is being carried out in Lake Van, Lake Beyşehir, Lake Mo- gan, Lake Meke and Uzungöl within the scope of Zero Waste Blue. The sustainability of the existing ecosystem is ensured by cleaning bottom mud and ghost nets. By taking these permanent steps with determination, the natural life in our seas will be saved. For Future Generations: Environment and Children Academy and Environmental Inspectors The establishment of the Environment and Child- ren's Academy, Türkiye's first digital and disabi- lity-specific platform, has been a turning point in disseminating the zero waste policy. The academy is aimed at elementary school students and is de- veloped as a barrier-free platform for our 18 million children with descriptions in sign language. Furt- hermore, the Environmental Inspector Project, one of the visionary projects of the Ministry of Environ- 505 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ment, Urbanisation and Climate Change, encoura- ges our children, the guarantee of our future, to take responsibility for the environment. This project aims to reach thousands of volunteer children. Conclusion; The Zero Waste Movement was first launched in 2017 under the auspices of First Lady Emine Er- doğan. In this process, the recovery rate reached 27.2%, proving that waste is a raw material and a necessity for the transition to a circular economy and has started to be accepted by all segments of society. Therefore, the Zero Waste Project has be- come one of our indispensable policies for protec- ting the world and Türkiye, leaving a clean world for future generations, and establishing a fairer world. With determination, patience, and financi- al and educational support, the zero waste proje- ct, a tool for total development, has been further strengthened with Zero Waste Blue. Based on the experiences gained in this field, stronger and more resilient structures are being built against risks. This process is being carried out diligently with new institutional structures such as the En- vironment Agency, the Climate Change Presiden- cy, and up-to-date legal infrastructure. T he Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change considers cities and their environment as a whole and carries out urbanization activities with a holistic ap- proach. Türkiye, which is extremely rich in terms of geological heritage as well as natural, histor- ical, and cultural riches, protects all these riches in their most natural form as a trust of our future generations. Urbanization, tourism, agriculture, and industry are not allowed to suppress these natural riches, and work is carried out within a harmonious development model. The primary objective is to contribute to the protection of bi- ological diversity, manage natural, historical, and cultural values with an understanding of sustain- ability, and live in a healthy and clean environ- ment in Special Environmental Protection Areas. Activities in this field are carried out with an in- tegrated area management approach, cooperat- ing with national and international organizations and ensuring coordination between sectors with a multidimensional perspective. The diversity of ecosystems, species, genes, interrelationships, and variability is defined as biological diversity. Plants, animals, and other living things in an area are the representatives of biodiversity. The basic needs of people, especially foodstuffs, and the raw materials used in areas such as pharmaceutical raw materials, cosmetics, and industry are based on biological diversity. Our country has vibrant biodiversity in terms of geographical features and climatic conditions. So much so that; while there are 12,500 different seed plant species in the European continent, this number is over 10 thousand in Türkiye, the only place where three of the eight plant gene centers intersect. More than one-third of the plant spe- cies we have are endemic. Excluding fungi and microorganisms, there are more than 37 thousand known species in Türkiye. Furthermore, two of the world's most important bird migration routes (Africa-Europe and Africa-Asia Migration Routes) pass through our country. Based on this, it is possible to say that our country is a continent in terms of biodiversity. Accordingly, the protection of biological diversity is vital for our country and the world. In this context, in line with the duties assigned, the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisa- tion and Climate Change carries out all necessary activities to protect biological diversity. Protected areas of various statuses are formed as a result of scientific research for the protection of biological diversity, and these areas are administered and protected in accordance with scientific criteria. PROTECTED AREAS AND NATURAL HERITAGE 508 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Protected Areas Protected areas are areas of land, water, or sea designated for the preservation and sustainability of biological diversity, natural resources, and cul- tural resources related to these. The Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change designates and manages natural protected areas and special environmental protection zones with- in its authority and responsibility. The primary purpose of establishing protected areas is to save living beings and species. In these areas, many endemic plant species such as the love flower and sweetgum tree and endangered animal species such as Mediterranean monk seals and sea turtles are under protection. In addition, the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change protects sensitive ecosystems and rare natural re- source values by declaring them as protected are- as under the status of natural protected areas and special environmental protection zones. Bursa Inkaya Sycamore Protected areas are areas of land, water, or sea designated for the preservation and sustainability of biological diversity, natural resources, and cultural resources related to these. 509 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Körükini Cave Konya Akçakale Cave Gümüşhane 510 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Special Environmental Protection Areas Special Environmental Protection Areas are nat- ural, historical, cultural, scientific, and aestheti- cally essential areas with biodiversity values that contain rare and endemic species and habitats. These areas are protected to prevent the pressure of urbanization, tourism, industry, and agricul- ture. Special Environmental Protection Areas (SE- PAs) are an obligation imposed by the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterrane- an Sea against Pollution. Special Environmental Protection Areas (SEPAs) aim to preserve ecolog- ically significant land and water areas, biodiver- sity, natural resources, and historical and cultur- al values, which are sensitive to environmental pollution and degradation, for future generations in their most natural form. The Ministry of Envi- ronment, Urbanization and Climate Change is re- sponsible for protecting the ecological values of the areas declared and proclaimed as SEPAs and taking all measures to eliminate existing environ- mental problems. Furthermore, the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization, and Climate Change is responsible for formulating the protection and management principles for these areas, creating conservation-oriented zoning plans, preparing plans at all conceivable scales, and approving them ex officio. There are 19 special environmental protection ar- eas declared throughout Türkiye. These are Belek, Kaş-Kekova, Salt Lake, Patara, Datça-Bozburun, Gökova, Karaburun-Ildır Bay, Köyceğiz-Dalyan, Fethiye-Göcek, Pamukkale, Saros, Finike Subma- rine Mountains, Salda, Ihlara, Gölbaşı, Uzungöl, Marmara Sea and Islands SEPAs. Marmara Sea and Islands were declared as SEPA in 2021 with the decision of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. Scientific studies have been initiated to manage the struggle in the region with a holistic approach. With this decision, the size of protected areas in Türkiye increased from 9.6% to 11.9%. The target is to gradually increase this figure to 13.8 percent by the end of this year and 17 percent by 2023, the OECD average. With the signature of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, the Marmara Sea has been declared a "Special Environmental Protection Area." Biodiversity research projects are carried out in these regions. With these projects, identi- fication of endangered species, sensitive species and habitats, and synthesis studies are carried out in line with possible threats and species distribu- tions. This way, infrastructure is created for the plans to be made. These plans are used to make management plans to determine and implement the activities in the five-year implementation pro- cess in the region to protect and utilize the natu- ral, historical, cultural values and socio-economic structure of SEPAs in order to ensure socio-eco- nomic development and increase environmental awareness. Socio-economic research, carrying ca- pacity studies, and species monitoring studies are also carried out. Monitoring activities include the protection of species and habitats in the regions, research, and monitoring of endemic species. Monument Tree In addition to protecting threatened and endan- gered flora and fauna species, it is essential to protect our natural values, which have become the property of our country and even the world, and to pass them on to future generations. For this purpose, necessary work is being carried out to protect monumental trees and caves, which are defined as natural assets. A monumental tree is a tree with a long natural life span that bridges the gap between the past and the present, as well as the present and the future, and that has reached sizes far beyond the typical dimensions of its kind in terms of age, trunk diameter, crown diameter, and height, as well as trees and some tree-shaped shrub species that have a special place in the history, mystical 511 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD culture, and folklore of the region. Thousands of years old yew, olive, plane tree, and many other species are registered and protected as monumen- tal trees. Currently, 9,360 monumental trees are under protection in 7 regions of Türkiye. The Ministry of Environment, Urbanization, and Climate Change organizes activities for the reg- istration and maintenance of monumental trees, which have a special place in the region's histo- ry, culture, and folklore and is considered natural heritage. Activities such as maintenance and land- scaping of the protected monumental trees under the authority and responsibility of the Ministry are carried out periodically. After the monumen- tal trees are registered and taken under protection, improvement and rehabilitation works are carried out. For tree rehabilitation, hollow areas, fungi, rot- ten parts, rough surfaces with broken branches, and similar surfaces are cleaned without damaging the tree. Samsun Tekkekoy Sycamore Tree Amasya Sultan Beyazit Mosque Sycamore In addition to protecting threatened and endangered flora and fauna species, it is essential to protect our natural values, which have become the property of our country and even the world, and to pass them on to future generations. 512 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Protected Species Türkiye's rich biodiversity has also made it neces- sary to protect it. The following are some of the protected species in this context. Mediterranean Monk Seal The Mediterranean monk seal is the only pin- niped (Pinnipedia) living in Turkish waters. This species is the rarest of the 34 pinnipeds identified worldwide. Its population in the world is known to be approximately 600. It is listed as Critically Endangered (CR) by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List (IUCN). In Türkiye, the Mediterranean monk seal is a rare marine mammal species that occur primarily along our Aegean and Mediterranean coasts. Spe- cial environmental protection areas are essential habitats of the Mediterranean monk seal today. All coastal special environmental protection are- as are essential habitats for Monachus monachus. Foça Special Environmental Protection Area has special importance for seals. In ancient times, Foça was known as Phokaia because of the Medi- terranean monk seals that resided in its seas, and this name has survived to the present day in the form of Foça. Sea Turtles Türkiye's beaches are among the most important nesting areas for Caretta Caretta. For Chelonia mydas, the most significant nesting potential is found in Türkiye and Cyprus, with a level of 99%. Sea turtle protection and monitoring activities in Türkiye started in 1989, 21 sea turtle nesting beaches were identified, and these areas were tak- en under protection. Among these beaches, the Ministry is responsible for the Belek, Patara, Gök- su, Köyceğiz-Dalyan, and Fethiye-Göcek SEPA breeding beaches. Flamingo Tuz Lake SEPA harbors the world's largest natural breeding colony (incubation area) of flamingos. Flamingos are one of the most spectacular birds on earth, usually living in crowded groups in salty and brackish shallow waters. There are six species living on earth. The species that lives in our coun- try is known as the great flamingo and is referred to in the literature as "Phoenicopterus roseus." Mediterranean Monk Seal Sea Turtle 513 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Lycian Salamander The Lycian Salamander (Lyciasalamandra fazi- lae), also known as the Göcek Salamander, is found in Köyceğiz, Dalyan, Göcek, and the Ship- yard and Domuz Island surrounding Göcek. Sandbar Shark In the Gökova Special Environmental Protec- tion Area, Boncuk Bay is the species' only known breeding point in the Mediterranean basin. Sand Lily Sand lily (Pancratium maritimum), an endan- gered species, is a monotypic (non-subspecies) genus, a member of the Amaryllidaceae family. It grows in the Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara, and Black Sea coastal dunes of Türkiye. This plant prefers sturdy sand dunes and has white, stunning, and fragrant flowers. The sand lily is a solar plant. As a result, it likes open places with stable dunes that are not damp, and where other plant species are sparse. Red Centaurea The Red Centaurea (Centaurea tchihatcheffii) is evaluated as "Critically Endangered" (CR) accord- ing to the criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is among the plant species that are under specific protection according to the Bern Convention. Studies are car- ried out by the Ministry to investigate the popula- tion of the Red Centaurea (Centaurea tchihatchef- fii) growing around Lake Mogan, to determine the threats and protection measures for its protec- tion (if any), and to take the necessary protection measures for the continuity of the reserve area. Anatolian Sweetgum Tree It is naturally found in stands in the coastal plains of Marmaris and Fethiye districts, especially in the Köyceğiz and Dalaman deltas. Frankincense oil (Sweetgum Oil) is a good antiseptic and parasiti- cide. It is helpful in skin diseases such as scabies and fungus in the form of ointment and patches. It is also used to heal stomach wounds. In the heal- ing of injuries on the body, sweetgum oil is used by applying it to the wound. Thus, the skin heals without scarring. Furthermore, sweetgum forests provide people with peace and tranquillity due to their heavy shade and fragrance. Flamingo Sand Lily 514 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Otter The number of otters is decreasing rapidly in Tür- kiye and the world. For this reason, it is protected under Appendix-1 of the CITES Convention and Appendix-2 of the Bern Convention and classified as endangered. This species is also listed among the species prohibited from being hunted by the Central Hunting Commission. In Türkiye, otters benefit from a wide range of freshwater, brackish water, and marine habitats. They can be found in lakes, reeds, wetlands, irrigation canals, and sea coasts. Rivers and streams of all sizes can be the habitat of otters. In fact, according to study con- ducted by the Ministry, otters inhabit caves with wetlands and streams as well. Their primary diet consists mainly of fish, frogs, and some crustacea species. They also feed on water birds and their eggs. Sometimes, when they cannot find enough food, they consume poultry and have even been found to feed on plant foods. They are among the species monitored in Special Environmental Pro- tection Areas, and the Ministry takes measures against the threats identified due to the studies carried out. It is observed primarily in Köyceğiz Dalyan and Gökova regions within the Special En- vironmental Protection Areas. Ecological Corridors Ecological corridors are natural or artificially cre- ated connection areas that ecologically connect habitats in close geographical regions, allowing species to pass through. Ecological corridors are a new protected area approach that combines areas with defined boundaries in traditional na- ture conservation policies (areas with protection status such as natural heritage, natural protect- ed area, special environmental protection area, national park, nature park, nature conservation area, wildlife development area, wetland, nature monument, etc. within the scope of national and international legislation in Türkiye) and brings unity of language to conservation practices. Eco- logical corridors contribute to increasing biodi- versity and prevent the fragmentation of natural and semi-natural areas. In terms of fauna and flora, they contribute to dispersal and gene flow, suitable environment for species to form colonies, habitat width, niche diversity, etc. In the light of scientific criteria, projects have been initiated to ensure ecological continuity, protect ecosystem integrity and biodiversity, identify corridors that connect protected areas, and cre- ate sustainable healthy connections between sub-ecosystems. These studies are being carried out in stages, and after the completion of the stud- ies, they will determine the ecological corridors between protected areas all over Türkiye. At this point, the national gardens we have estab- lished in our cities are combined with ecological corridors to form a lush green 'inner line' and our 515 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD country is being woven with green networks. Our cities are connected with green corridors, and SEPAs are being increased in line with en- vironmental sensitivity. Natural and lush green corridors from north to south, east to west con- necting nation gardens and ecological areas; eco- logical corridors are being created on 22 provin- cial borders connecting protected areas and all our natural areas. Ecological corridors are of great importance in increasing environmental quality, combat- ing climate change and global warming, reduc- ing carbon emissions, combating floods, and preventing species extinction. The areas to be protected with ecological corridors, such as for- est areas, wetlands, agricultural areas, valleys, stream beds, and large plains, will be combined with areas that support natural life, where living things can find shelter and food, such as botani- cal gardens, urban forests, groves and afforesta- tion areas that have evolved into natural struc- tures, park areas, national gardens, river basins, and dam ponds. Ecological corridors aiming to connect natural and semi-natural areas with appropriate lines 516 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Ankara Güney Ekolojik Koridoru Ankara Güney Ekolojik Koridoru 517 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD and/or patches will be treated directly as habitat integrity. Where applicable, flora and fauna habi- tats, especially critical species to be selected, will be identified, and corridor areas will be analyzed according to the needs of these species. Migration status, habitats, distribution capacity, and life strategies of migratory species will be the basis for corridor selection. These areas will also include natural thresholds and geographical regions that ensure the continuity of natural environments. TÜRKİYE'S URBAN TRANSFORMATION MOBILIZATION A n urban transformation campaign was launched under the leadership of Presi- dent Recep Tayyip Erdoğan for the resto- ration and reconstruction of our cities, which are the most precious treasures of our ancient civ- ilization. Urban transformation projects aim to prevent loss of life and property in the event of a possible disaster in our country, which is located in an earthquake zone, to rebuild slums and de- pressed areas, and protect historical and cultural textures. In this way, it is ensured that cities with regular infrastructure, efficient energy use, green transformation-oriented and resilient cities are established. In addition, with its policies encour- aging the use of domestic and national products in these areas, it makes it possible to turn risk into opportunity thanks to the economic added value it creates in terms of increasing employment. To this end, the Ministry continues its activities on urban regeneration, which aims to create healthy and safe urban areas with social facilities, green areas, transportation system, social reinforcement and green areas within the framework of a holistic planning approach that is sensitive to disasters by removing unsafe and unhealthy structures from residential areas at risk of causing loss of life or property. Social survey programs developed to ensure pub- lic participation in the urban transformation pro- cess, determine the supply-demand balance and analyze the social-economic structure constitute an essential step in the urban transformation pro- cess. Through social structure analyses conducted by the Ministry on the population living and work- ing in the areas planned for urban transformation, the demographic and social structure of the pop- ulation is determined, and their needs and expec- tations are collected. In this context, project alter- natives are developed in line with the population's expectations. In addition, projects are developed to meet the needs of all segments of society by creating barrier-free living spaces where physical barriers are eliminated for disadvantaged groups in urban transformation implementation areas. Under Law No. 6306, the primary purpose of the ongoing urban transformation works in risky ar- eas, and reserve building areas is to ensure the transformation of areas with unhealthy, unsafe, and risky building stock into livable urban parts and to prevent those living in dangerous buildings and risky regions from living in unhealthy urban spaces in the future. The transformation works in line with these basic principles are carried out 520 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD under the categories of Transformation of Areas under Disaster Risk (earthquake, fire, flood, land- slide, etc.), Planning of Sustainable/Smart/Climate Friendly Cities, Works in Areas Damaged by Ter- rorism, Works on the Conservation/Preservation of Historical Urban Fabric and Cultural Heritage, and Relocation/Transformation of Industrial Ar- eas. The objectives of the urban transformation works carried out within this scope are to trans- form 6 million buildings in 20 years, or 300,000 per year, by using a sustainable and climate-sensi- tive urban transformation model, preserving his- torical and cultural values, using horizontal archi- tecture as a foundation, and distributing the value increase fairly/balanced. Transformation of Areas Under Disaster Risk 71% of our urban population and 66% of our land are located in the first-degree and second-degree seismic zones. In the past 100 years, 56 quakes with a magnitude of six or higher have occurred. Therefore, it is essential to carry out urban trans- formation works effectively and rapidly in areas under disaster risk to reduce the risks of possible disasters, especially earthquakes. There are ap- proximately 19 million buildings in our country. Approximately 5 million of these are in relative- ly better condition as they were built within the scope of the earthquake legislation updated after the earthquake in 1999. There are 14 million build- ings in this condition that need to be reviewed. In the 10th year of the urban transformation efforts, which have been implemented with a mobiliza- tion spirit since 2012, a total of 846,252 independ- ent units (242,907 buildings), including 733,836 residences and 112,416 workplaces, have been identified as risky structures across the coun- try. As a result, a total of 755,202 separate units (224,561 buildings), including 661,143 residences and 94059 workplaces, were demolished. In ad- dition, transformation works are ongoing in 278 "Risky Areas" of approximately 13,500 hectares in 59 different provinces and 411 "Reserve Building Areas" of 51,800 hectares in 60 different sections, which were determined to be used as new settle- ment areas. In addition to the earthquake disaster, it is seen that 10 percent of the loss of life in disasters that 521 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD occurred in our country between 1923-2020 was caused by landslides, overflows, and floods. Es- pecially the floods and landslides experienced in recent years due to the climate crisis caused this rate to increase even more. The "Black Sea Region Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan" was announced after the recent frequent dis- asters such as overflows, floods, and landslides. In this context, the buildings under the risk of flood- ing in the river beds were identified. To ensure the life safety of the citizens residing in these build- ings, efforts are underway to identify suitable re- serve building areas to produce new houses. Along with the works carried out for the transfor- mation of areas/structures under risk to prevent possible disasters, the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization, and Climate Change also plays a leading role in healing damages after disasters. Es- pecially in recent years, due to the disasters caused by earthquakes, floods, and fires in our country, urgent action has been taken to rebuild housing, infrastructure, and public services, especially the need for shelter. With the projects prepared, both the wounds have been healed, and steps have been taken to minimize the damages caused by possible disasters. Following the disasters, the disaster area was visited at the Ministerial level within hours, and high-level participation in project design work was ensured. Efficient and swift action was taken, and the necessary works were urgently initiated to meet the shelter and infrastructure needs. Most of the construction works were completed before the end of one year, and the independent units were delivered to the beneficiaries. In this context, following the disasters in Elazığ, Malatya, İzmir, Giresun, Rize, Sinop, Bartın, Antalya, and Muğla provinces, a total of 40 thousand houses and vil- lage houses, 1,900 workplaces, 2,200 stables, and social reinforcement areas were rebuilt by the lo- cal texture, and the most comprehensive urban transformation projects to date were realized. The work carried out by the Ministry in the regions where urban regeneration projects have been im- plemented has had a catalytic effect in spreading the demand and effectiveness of urban regenera- tion to other parts of the city. Planning Sustainable, Smart and Climate Friendly Cities Our cities, which are constantly changing and developing due to advancing technologies and uncontrolled industrialization, unplanned and rapid urbanization, migration, disasters with dev- astating effects, epidemics, etc., make it necessary to implement sustainable development models to support our struggle against urban challenges. Urban transformation practices aim to transform cities with structures violating zoning legislation into sustainable cities. With Law No. 6306 enter- ing into force, urban transformation implementa- tion areas are seen as opportunities for realizing sustainability. Integrating sustainable, smart, and climate-friendly models into urban transforma- tion implementation areas is essential for solving problems. The new smart urban transformation 522 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD approach aims to increase the quality of life of ur- ban dwellers and ensure energy efficiency in the city and the effective and efficient consumption of natural resources. Realizing urban models compatible with technol- ogy will ensure resource development and con- scious consumption. The technology development zone planned to be established within the "Esenler Smart Urban Transformation Project" aims to create value for Esenler and Türkiye. With the project, applications such as smart traffic lights, intersections, lighting, irrigation systems, waste management, etc. are planned to be implemented. With the completion of the smart urban transformation project in stag- es, the rightful owners will start moving to the new residences allocated to them. The areas vacated by the beneficiaries will be transformed into public service areas. With the relocation of the benefi- ciaries who live in the existing reinforcement area to the new settlement areas, the district will have breathing spaces. "Esenler City of the Future" will reflect Türkiye's vision of smart cities and set an example for the world. In addition, green urban transformation projects aim to introduce a fun- damental element of ecological planning. In the planning and project design process, emphasis is placed on climate-friendly, green transformation to define an environmental system with green connections passing through the neighborhoods, ensuring energy and water efficiency, and encour- aging renewable materials. Decisions are taken to create a holistic green approach together with the squares that form the city's identity, and it aims to reduce the impact of climate change on housing and green area designs. The principle of realizing the investments to be made within this framework by considering the ecological balance, financial possibilities, and prioritizing studies has been adopted. As a result of the planning of climate-friendly cities, better quality and healthier urban lifestyle can be created with reduced greenhouse gas emis- sions. Climate-friendly cities that are self-suffi- cient and have transportation, access, and infra- structure facilities, waste management, use of renewable materials, energy, and water efficiency will also be ensured. Urban transformation is a vital tool to ensure that the projects carried out comply with sustainability principles, that the sustainability-themed credit opportunities of in- ternational and domestic financial institutions can be utilized in urban transformation, and that they can meet our country's national obligations on climate change. In this context, a sustainable, climate-sensitive, ecological, disaster-prioritized, participatory planning approach compatible with upper-scale plans and respectful of historical val- ues have been adopted. Works in Areas Damaged by Terrorism It is one of the fundamental duties of the state to ensure that citizens live in cities in peace and to ensure public order in towns. In this context, ensuring urban security and public order has be- come one of the main objectives in most urban transformation practices in our country in recent years. In 2016, Diyarbakır Sur, Mardin Nusaybin, Hakkari Yüksekova, Şırnak Centre, Cizre, İdil and Silopi districts, which were damaged by the ter- rorist organization, were reborn from their ash- es thanks to the works carried out by the Minis- try. In these cities, where the traces of terrorism were erased and the wounds of the citizens were healed, 27,353 independent units were trans- formed, 25,910 independent units were produced, and turnkey deliveries were made. At the same time, the construction of 25 schools, 19 mosques, and 12 condolence houses was completed, and in- frastructure services such as drinking water, sew- age systems, roads, etc., that were damaged were renewed. 523 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Destruction caused by terrorism (Şırnak-İdil, Hakkâri-Yüksekova) Destruction caused by terrorism (Mardin-Nusaybin, Şırnak-Silopi) Yüksekova Yenimahalle, Akalın, İnanlı Neighborhoods Reserve Building Area (3102 Housing 137) Yüksekova Yenimahalle, Akalın, İnanlı Neighborhoo- ds Reserve Building Area (3102 Housing 137) Traditional Houses and Commercial Area Produced in Sur District, Suriçi Region 524 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Nusaybin District Risky Area (5051 Housing 514, Commercial Areas) Şırnak Central District Risky Area (5716 Housing 379, Commercial Areas) Silopi District Risky and Reserve Building Area (840 Housing, 12 Commercial) Idil District Risky and Reserve Building Area (512 Housing, 2 Commercial) Cizre District Risky and Reserve Building Area (3069 Housing, 188 Commercial) 525 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Protection and Preservation of Historical City Structure and Cultural Heritage The protection and preservation of historical and cultural heritage are of great importance in urban transformation efforts. In this context, it is aimed to improve the physical conditions of the build- ings and protect the cultural texture of the place, reveal the original identities of the historic places, and improve their aging/deteriorating physical en- vironments in historical areas that contain monu- mental buildings and civil architecture examples. Projects are developed to restore the historical identities of cities and transfer them to future gen- erations as a social heritage to restore the original identity of historical places that have lost their importance and vitality. To preserve the historical values of buildings, survey, restitution, and res- toration projects and reconstruction projects are carried out for registered buildings, environmen- tal conditions of historical areas are improved, and street sanitization and square arrangement pro- jects are carried out. Within this framework, our projects are primarily Ankara Hergelen Square, Konya Mevlana Square, Niğde Kaleiçi, Erzurum Hacı Cuma, Kastamonu Nasrullah Mosque and its surroundings, Afyon Mısri Bazaar, Kayseri Ka- leiçi and works are ongoing in Diyarbakır, Tokat, Amasya and Giresun. Chaldean Catholic Church and Surp Giragos Church Restoration Grand Mosque Square and Landscaping 526 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Relocation and Transformation of Industrial Areas In the years when they were built, our industrial areas, which were located outside the center, re- mained in the center with the expansion of the cities, and this situation started to cause a wide variety of problems ranging from traffic density to health problems, from visual pollution to physical pollution. The unplanned relocation of the indus- trial areas in the center to the city periphery has made it necessary to re-plan and transform the cities. To solve these problems and create healthy cities, efforts have been initiated to transform the industrial zones in the city centers, which have become run-down and depressed areas. In this context, work is underway to create 10,000 inde- pendent units for industrial sites in all cities, par- ticularly in Istanbul, Kayseri, Kocaeli, and Konya. Our planning and construction processes are cur- rently underway in Istanbul Arnavutköy, Konya Karatay, Rize Taşlıdere, and Aksaray Small Indus- trial Site. These projects are planned to spread to all our cities for industrial areas within five years. Software Development Studies The ARAAD information system was developed to carry out the transactions within the scope of Law No. 6306 with a modern, reliable and dy- namic information system infrastructure and to share the information generated with the relevant stakeholders within the range of their authoriza- tions. Identification of risky buildings, risky areas, and reserve building areas, execution of financial transactions for these applications, recording the value determinations of the immovables to be sub- jected to transformation, agreements to be made with the beneficiaries and the aids to be made, transactions carried out for the reconstruction of Kurşunlu Mosque Before and After Restoration (Diyarbakır) Hz. Süleyman Mosque and its Surroundings Before and Af- ter (Diyarbakır) 527 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD the buildings, and the follow-up of legal problems that may be encountered in this process is carried out through the information system. In addition, with the YAP.Net Program (Structural Analysis Platform), a web-based structural analysis pro- gram, it is ensured that the calculation model based on the static analysis of a building subject to risky building determination is created, the static analysis of this structural model is performed, and all these data obtained as a result of the analysis can be reported and recorded under a specific for- mat and order. The YAP.Net Program integrates with the ARAAD information system (Transformation of Areas Under Disaster Risk), where all works and trans- actions within Law No. 6306 are carried out, and records are kept. The risky building determination report containing the results obtained from the analyses to be performed in the YAP.Net program is automatically transferred to the ARAAD infor- mation system, where it is signed and recorded with an electronic signature by licensed institu- tions and organizations. Thus, all works and trans- actions related to the risky building identification process are carried out quickly, effectively, and accurately through the electronic system. YAP.Net program has been activated in all provinces across the country. As a result; The works carried out is aimed both to accelerate the urban transformation process and to create more vibrant cities in historical and cultural terms, complete with the full participation and consent of the citizens, together with their technical infra- structure and social facilities. In line with these objectives, the Ministry continues to carry out the urban transformation process in cooperation with municipalities. It continues to provide incentives such as loan and interest support as well as rental assistance to carry out all these transformation ac- tivities and accelerate urban transformation pro- jects. Work is underway to create 10,000 independent units for industrial sites in all cities, particularly in Istanbul, Kayseri, Kocaeli, and Konya. A ll works needed by citizens and required by the age are being carried out in every corner of Türkiye, from infrastructure to public gardens, housing production to environ- mental investments, nature conservation projects to waste management, urban transformation to geographic information systems, spatial planning to infrastructure works.Among these activities, housing production is a priority area of work as the primary need of citizens. World public opin- ion also considers the right to shelter and house an immediate need. Adopting the Universal Dec- laration of Human Rights was a historical turning point. After the Declaration's adoption, the need for housing has been recognized as a human right within the scope of human rights and fundamen- tal freedoms at the international level. As a result, the goal of adequate, qualified, and accessible housing for all in healthy and sustainable living environments has become a priority for all states. As Türkiye's leading actor responsible for social housing production, the Housing Development Administration (TOKİ) both produces housing and determines housing policies. Reaching its tar- get of one million housing units in 2021, TOKİ has implemented a social housing model that is an example for the whole world with its urban trans- formation/urban renewal, post-disaster housing production, agricultural city practices, resource development projects, production of social rein- forcement areas and overseas exercises. According to current data, the fact that 86.90% of the 1 million 103 thousand houses produced in 81 provinces are social housing shows how vital the support for low-income citizens and the so- cial housing model in question are. Therefore, the transformation of international studies, which constitute the basis of the individual's right to housing as a human right, into a housing policy by TOKİ in Türkiye and the concrete studies car- ried out in this field is being worked on sensitively. Right to Housing and Social Housing The provision of adequate housing for all, regard- less of income status, and the fact that housing is a human right have been discussed at the HABITAT I-II-III Conferences organized under the leader- ship of the United Nations (UN) and have entered the world agenda as a global action plan. Particu- larly at the UN-HABITAT III Conference held in Quito, the capital of Ecuador in 2016, the princi- ples of "environmental sustainability", "leaving no one behind", "equal access to social and physical infrastructure and services" and "housing that is affordable and suitable for decent living" was SOCIAL HOUSING MOBILIZATION IN TÜRKIYE: TOKİ AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF ONE MILLION HOUSES 530 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD adopted. The UN Sustainable Development Goals, which entered into force in January 2016, include the target of "ensuring that by 2030, everyone has access to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services, and improving slum areas". In this sense, social housing production maintains its importance globally, especially within the scope of housing policies that are sensitive to the needs of different income groups. Social housing can be defined as standardized, minimum size and quality, affordable public housing that can meet the housing needs of poor or low-income families. The priority in social housing production is realizing adequate and ac- cessible housing production with sustainable pol- icies to cover the needs and preferences of target groups. Population growth, demographic chang- es, migration, climate change, disaster risks, and new economic and political developments have led to the need to re-model the demand for social housing, especially in developing countries. Social housing production aims to make our living environments healthier, safer, and more livable in an urbanizing world. There are national and local policies and projects across the globe to achieve this goal. The main issues that arise while sus- taining current policies include increasing pover- ty, migration, planning inadequacies, insufficient resources, legal and administrative shortcomings, environmental degradation, and natural disas- ters. Social housing policies were introduced to address these problems at the end of the 19th cen- tury in Europe and in the first half of the 20th cen- tury in other countries around the world. The first significant implementation of social housing in the world was in the "Bethnal Green" area of Lon- don, and the first legal regulation was adopted in Belgium in 1889. The Netherlands, which has the most examples of social housing today, started to produce social housing for the first time in 1901. Although there are commonalities in social hous- ing practices, different standards and policies have been developed in each country. In some countries, only the poorest segments of society can benefit from social housing, while in others, low-wage and middle-income earners can benefit from social housing. In Türkiye, there is a social housing model implemented by TOKİ. The Right to Housing in Türkiye and the Housing Development Administration (TOKİ) The right to housing and the concept of social housing, guaranteed by international instru- ments, is constitutionally guaranteed in Türkiye. Under the constitutional provision on the support of housing initiatives, Law No. 2985 on Collective Housing was enacted. This law is a framework law that defines the basic principles guiding the solu- tion of the housing problem in our country, espe- cially in terms of organization and financing. The law was enacted to provide the necessary public support to meet the housing need and provide the required services through an administration organized for this purpose. TOKİ was established in 1984 for this purpose, and between 1984 and 2002, it built 43,145 houses on its own lands and provided loan support for 940,000 houses. 531 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Since 2002, Türkiye has made significant progress in finding solutions to housing and urbanization problems at the national level and ensuring the production of sufficient and quality housing in healthy and livable urban environments. The 58th Government of the Republic of Türkiye prior- itized policies to address the housing and urbani- zation problem and launched the most significant housing mobilization in history across the coun- try. As a result, the Housing and Urbanization Emergency Action Plan was adopted on Janu- ary 1, 2003. With this plan, targets such as "ren- ovation", "transformation," and "quality housing production" were set, and TOKİ was given the re- sponsibility and authority to implement this plan. As of 2003, a large-scale "planned urbanization and housing offensive" was launched for the first time in Türkiye's history. The aforementioned emergency action plan aimed to solve the hous- ing problems of low-income families, especially in Türkiye's economically underdeveloped cities and big cities receiving migration from rural are- as. During this period, political determination, the development of appropriate legislation and insti- tutional capacity, and the effective modeling of cooperation between the central government and local governments and the public-private sector, together with the government's support, have in- creased the efficiency and success of the projects carried out by TOKİ. With the government's support and cooperation with local administrations, TOKİ carries out a com- prehensive urban renewal/transformation activi- ty to support modern urbanization. With Law No. 6306 on "Transformation of Areas under Disaster Risk", urban transformation efforts across Türkiye have become widespread, and TOKİ has become a significant player. The Marmara Earthquake, a milestone for Türkiye, led to major changes in our perspective on urban- ism after 2002. After the earthquake, significant new legal regu- lations and practises were implemented. With the building inspection system in 2000, the "planned housing mobilisation" in 2002, and the "urban transformation mobilisation" in 2012, Türkiye avoided a new adventure in unauthorized con- struction thanks to revolutionary reforms in zon- ing legislation achieved over these years. With the on-site, voluntary, and rapid urban transformation mobilization launched by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in 2012 with the goal of "Urban Transfor- mation All Over", the transformation of 3 million houses was completed in total. With the transition to the Presidential Government System, TOKİ, which continues its activities under the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization, and Climate Change,, aims to meet approximately 10% of the housing need in our country. In this context, two main objectives were set. The first one is to pro- vide social housing production on land owned by TOKİ to enable low and middle-income groups who cannot hold a house under market conditions, to own a house according to their income and savings patterns, with low monthly installments and long maturities. The second is to realize urban renewal and transformation projects in cooperation with local governments in slum and over-dense illegal housing areas, areas with a high risk of natural dis- asters (earthquakes, floods, landslides, etc.), histor- ic urban areas, and urban areas that have reached the end of their economic life. These projects are prepared and implemented un- der design, health and comfort, social structure, energy efficiency, water efficiency, and material use. TOKİ carries out its activities in seven different areas, such as: • Social housing production • Urban transformation projects • Restoration of historical areas 532 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD • Production of new industrial areas • Nation's gardens • Production of new industrial areas These projects are prepared and implemented un- der design, health and comfort, social structure, energy efficiency, water efficiency, and material use. The urban transformation campaign initiated under the leadership of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan took on a new dimension in 2019 with the announcement of horizontal architecture, and the importance of horizontal urbanization, which will contribute significantly to our understand- ing of urbanism, was emphasized. It was empha- sized that horizontal buildings would provide a healthy and orderly life and contribute to the city silhouette and the relationship between humans and the environment by preventing uncontrolled construction in the city. The main objective is to build cities that are environmentally friendly, cli- mate-friendly and suitable for horizontal archi- tecture. TOKİ's Social Housing Program and Social Housing Production TOKİ's social housing program is based on pro- jects for low and middle-income groups. In this context, between May 2003 and May 2022, TOKİ built 1 million 103 thousand houses in 81 provinc- es with an investment of 251 billion TL and deliv- ered them to their rightful owners. Of the houses produced, 86.90% were social housing. Further- more, TOKİ completed the one-millionth house in the Sincan district in 2021. In addition, as seen in the table, 20 thousand or more social housing units were produced in 11 cities. PROVINCES NUMBER OF HOUSES (TOTAL) Ankara 98.280 İstanbul 90.717 Adana 34.756 Elazığ 34.224 Konya 29.548 Gaziantep 27.156 Van 26.733 İzmir 24.992 Bursa 24.887 Kayseri 21.080 Diyarbakır 20.512 In addition, in 2009, TOKİ also produced social housing for poor income groups at the bottom of the income distribution and not subject to any social security institution. TOKİ completed the construction of 156,000 housing units for low and poor-income groups. This represents 14.82% of TOKİ's total social housing program. While 17.33% of social housing projects are slum transforma- tion/urban renewal projects, 7.35% are disaster housing projects, and 0.70% are agricultural vil- lage projects. TOKİ will continue to work until all low-income citizens in our country become home- owners. 533 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Housing Production within the Scope of Urban Transformation/Urban Renewal Since Türkiye is located in an earthquake zone, measures to minimize the risk of earthquakes in urban areas should not be neglected. The areas subject to urban renewal projects are as follows: • Areas whose liquidation is mandatory due to technical features such as geological condition, soil properties, seismicity, historical and natu- ral heritage, • Disaster areas and areas with high urban land value but low construction quality, • Areas incompatible with urban identity. Areas for urban renewal projects are jointly iden- tified by the Ministry of Environment, Urbaniza- tion, and Climate Change and local governments. Then, in accordance with the protocols signed between municipalities and TOKİ, TOKİ carries out the engineering and manufacturing works of the projects (housing and necessary social facili- ties (schools, kindergartens, sports halls, religious facilities, health facilities, trade, etc.). Municipal- ities, on the other hand, undertake responsibili- ties such as reconciliation with the project bene- ficiaries, expropriation, liquidation of the project area, solving legal problems related to existing im- movable properties, making the zoning plan, and providing temporary settlement assistance when necessary.  TOKİ's social housing program also includes pro- jects to rebuild housing, infrastructure, and pub- lic services in areas damaged by natural disasters. After the 2011 Van Earthquake, the city was virtu- ally rebuilt, and 17,500 houses with social facili- ties were built and delivered to the rightful own- ers by TOKİ within a year. With "Law No. 6306 on the Transformation of Areas Under Disaster Risk", which came into force after the Van Earth- quake, expanded urban transformation efforts across Türkiye, and TOKİ became a pioneering institution in this field. TOKİ has played an active role in eliminating the problems arising from the disasters caused by earthquakes, floods, and fires in our country, especially in recent years. Mate- rial and moral efforts have been initiated to heal the wounds of disaster victims. With the hous- ing projects, most of which were completed and delivered in a short period, the housing needs of the citizens were met before the end of one year. In this context, a total of 40 thousand houses and village houses, 1,900 workplaces, 2,200 stables, and social facilities were rebuilt in Elazığ, Malat- ya, İzmir, Giresun, Rize, Sinop, Bartın, Antalya and Muğla in accordance with the local texture. After the disaster, the most comprehensive urban transformation (earthquake transformation) in the history of the country was realized in these cities. In addition to housing projects, steps were also taken to minimize the damages caused by possible disasters. As of May 2022, the number of houses construct- ed under urban renewal projects reached 182,417. There are 9.8 million buildings and approximately 29 million housing in Türkiye. About 6.7 million of these houses are in the risky housing category, and 1.5 million urgently need to be transformed. At this point, the critical importance of TOKİ emerg- es. In line with the targets of the Ministry and TOKİ, projects are being carried out by prioritiz- 534 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD ing areas with high disaster risk and unplanned urbanization. Furthermore, all new projects are being built in line with Türkiye's climate-friend- ly green transformation, that are resilient to dis- asters, and zero-waste compatible. Housing Production within the Scope of Agricultural Village Projects TOKİ's projects include making production and living areas where agricultural activities are in- tensive in our country healthier. The Tarımköy Projects (Agricultural Village Projects) developed in this context attempt to make idle or inefficient village/rural lands operational by supporting them within the framework of public services. Since 2003, a total of 7,375 village houses have been completed with all equipment areas to im- prove the social conditions of our people living in rural areas, develop village architecture, pre- serve and renew the local architecture and tex- ture, and provide our citizens with healthy and livable houses. After the disasters in the rural areas of cities such as Rize, Antalya, and Muğla, 11,033 village hous- es were urgently constructed. These works are being carried out meticulously within the scope of Türkiye's rural transformation and in the af- termath of disasters in rural areas. Social Facilities for Social Housing The primary purpose of TOKİ's social housing projects is to build all the infrastructure and social facilities required for a quality urban life. Along with housing projects, social facilities such as schools, hospitals, commercial centers, mosques, etc., are also built to enable beneficiar- ies to benefit from all kinds of urban services. In addition to 1 million 103 thousand housing units, 1,385 schools (with 28,600 classrooms), 20 universities, 997 sports halls, 215 dormito- ries/hostels with a capacity of 84,137 people, 269 hospitals, 99 health centers, 2,113 commercial workplaces, 44 libraries, 912 mosques, 327 pub- lic service buildings and 19 stadiums, a total of 26,078 social facilities have been completed and put into the service of citizens. In this context, the Atatürk Cultural Center, one of our coun- try's critical cultural projects, has become one of the world's leading cultural centers with its architecture and aesthetics; it was built by TOKİ and brought to Istanbul on the 98th anniversa- ry of our Republic. Again, critical historical city square transformation projects were realized within the scope of improving and transforming ancient city squares by protecting our history with the slogan "loyalty to history, respect for the past". https://twitter.com/murat_kurum/sta- tus/1339927680062533633 Historical transfor- mation projects are ongoing in Bursa, Nevşehir, Samsun, Çankırı, Diyarbakır, Erzurum, Kayseri, Konya, Muş, Siirt, Sinop, Sivas, Yozgat and Şan- lıurfa. In addition to social housing projects, ef- forts are being made to preserve the civilization- al heritage of our ancient cities. Green Building Certificate LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmen- tal Design), established in 2000 by the US Green 535 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Building Council (USGBC) to rate the design and construction practices that will define a green building in the USA, gives green building certi- fication to structures within the framework of seven main elements. According to LEED standards, TOKİ's social housing projects in Kırklareli also comply with sustainability legislation with their social fa- cilities. In this sense, Istanbul Atatürk Airport was selected as the world's largest LEED Gold certified building. Social housing projects and other projects initiated in Türkiye continue to be organized with sustainability principles and to enlarge the world passed on to future gener- ations with green building-centered projects. In this sense, Türkiye started issuing green certifi- cates for buildings on June 9, 2022. In line with Türkiye's climate-friendly green transformation goals, the climate-friendly green transformation will continue to be an essential tool in housing policies to achieve the 2053 Net Zero Emission target. It will continue to set and implement sim- ilar standards in this sense. Resource Development Projects for Financing Social Housing After the abolition of the Housing Fund estab- lished by the Housing Law in 2001, TOKİ has also developed innovative financial models to imple- ment government decisions on existing housing and settlement policies. With the "revenue/in- come sharing model" developed in this context, the profits from projects built for upper-income groups on valuable land owned by the Adminis- tration in big cities such as Istanbul and Ankara are used to finance social housing projects. This model also helps to close the gap between TOKİ's short-term investment expenditures and long- term receivables. Moreover, with this model, the land in TOKİ's portfolio is utilized most effi- ciently to create funds for social projects. Thus, a significant amount of resources are generated in cash flow, enabling the realization of new prac- tices that will increase the housing supply. The revenue sharing model has been applied in a small number of projects in recent years. The primary purpose of TOKİ's social housing projects is to build all the infrastructure and social facilities required for a quality urban life. 536 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD Dissemination of the Social Housing Model in the World TOKİ's social housing production model, which has contributed significantly to the solution of the housing and shelter problem in Türkiye with its successful social housing projects and financing model, has aroused great interest worldwide. In this context, this model has been shared with 103 countries, and social housing has been built under grants in some countries. For example, 1,050 hous- es in the Banda Aceh region of Indonesia for those who lost their homes in the 2004 earthquake and tsunami in South Asia and 500 houses with so- cial facilities in Sri Lanka, which was damaged by the same disaster, were built and put into service. Following the earthquake in Pakistan in 2005, the "Muzaffarabad Regional Government Administra- tion" complex project was realized in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This project included two primary schools, two dormitories, 197 houses, 12 administration buildings, a mosque, a college building, a conference and exhibition hall, a shop- ping center, a guesthouse, and a gymnasium. Fol- lowing the 2010 flood disaster in Pakistan, 4,620 houses and 37 social facilities were built. Somalia built a hospital with 200 beds, a vocational school for nurses with 40 classrooms, and a place of wor- ship for 2,000 people in indoor and outdoor areas. Following the 6.4 magnitude earthquake in Al- bania on November 26, 2019, the construction of 522 houses in the city of Laç (as a grant from the Republic of Türkiye to Albania) was completed within one year. In addition to the houses, 37 com- mercial units and indoor and outdoor parking lots were constructed under the project. Within the scope of a new project launched at the beginning of 2020 as a grant from the Republic of Türkiye, technical studies were initiated to construct 500 housing units for Crimean Turks in Ukraine. The Framework Agreement on cooperation in the field of housing was signed between the two countries on April 10, 2021. TOKİ continues to develop pro- jects to meet the housing needs in underdeveloped countries internationally. 537 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD One Million Housing Target as Part of Housing Mobilization Having reached its target of one million housing units in 2021, TOKİ has built 10.2% of the total 10.5 million housing units constructed in Türkiye in the last 20 years. The fact that TOKİ has a 13.8% share in the housing sales realized across the country in 2021 should be recorded as a serious achievement. Three main factors have character- ized TOKİ's social housing production. These are to create designs that preserve traditional neigh- bourhood culture, including low-rise buildings that use a horizontal architectural approach that does not deviate from the existing local fabric of the cities where the projects are carried out. These aspects are regarded as absolute quality standards that will ensure the future prosperity of the hous- ing industry. TOKİ continues to support, through campaigns, the regulation of the housing sector, avoiding ex- cessive price increases, and ensuring low- and mid- dle-income citizens' access to housing. Currently, the construction of 150 thousand houses is ongo- ing in 803 construction sites, and continues its ac- tivities in hundreds of cities, from social housing to urban transformation, public buildings, and na- tion's gardens. With these data, TOKİ, which has built the most social housing in the country and the world, and has produced the greenest areas and human-centered social facilities, continues its new projects in line with the Presidential Pro- grams. The main priorities are increasing urban green spaces, especially energy efficiency, and pro- ducing climate-sensitive and ecological projects using local architecture and building materials. T he main priority of Türkiye in energy po- licy is to evaluate the potential of domes- tic and renewable energy sources and to develop a diversified energy generation model. Türkiye has a significant renewable energy po- tential and has been using this potential more and more in the last decade. Hydro and wind energy sources, which account for the vast majority of re- newable energy generation, constitute about half of the total energy capacity. On the other hand, ef- forts are underway to increase the share of other renewable energy sources, especially solar energy, in power generation. Türkiye's overall approach is to expand the per- centage of domestic and renewable energy, with the goal of providing two-thirds of its power ge- nerating capacity from renewable energy by 2023. By the end of June 2022, our installed power in electricity generation, one of the most significant pillars of the energy sector, has reached 101.5 GW. Türkiye is now one of 14 nations in the world and six in Europe with more than 100 GW of installed power (following China, the United States, India, Japan, Russia, Germany, Brazil, Canada, France, South Korea, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Türkiye). Thermal power plants provide for 46% of the ins- talled power, renewable resources account for 54%, and domestic resources account for 65%. With its approximately 54 GW of renewable ins- talled power, Türkiye is among the top 5 countries in Europe, along with Germany, Spain, France and Italy, and ranks 12th in the world as of the end of 2021. Renewable resources accounted for 86% of the electricity generation investments made in our country in the last four years between 2018- 2021. Almost all of the 4 GW increase in our instal- led power in 2021 has been derived from renewab- le sources. The Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources has initiated large-scale renewable energy projects in the renewable energy resource areas (YEKA) with the legislation it has prepared. The first incentive was offered for a solar power plant established in May 2017. Furthermore, Türkiye put into operati- on the first and only integrated solar panel pro- duction facility in Europe and the Middle East in August 2020. In addition, a 1000 MW connection capacity was allocated for the YEKA Wind Power Plant (REZ WPP-1) Competition held in 2017. In 2019, the REZ WPP-2 Competitions were held in four different regions, each with a capacity of 250 MW with a total capacity of 1000 MW. In 2021, RENEWABLE ENERGY 540 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD new solar energy tenders, including 74 tenders in 36 provinces, were completed at 10, 15 and 20 MW capacities, with a total installed power of 1 GW. In addition, three different YEKA wind ener- gy tenders for 2200 MW of solar energy and 850 MW of solar energy were published in the Official Gazette. Türkiye launched its National Energy and Mining Policy in 2017 with the goal of ensuring supply se- curity, localisation, and predictable market con- ditions. Türkiye's priority is to reduce imports by using domestic and renewable energy resources and by developing nuclear energy capacity, to reduce foreign dependency on energy. Further- more, possible domestic equipment manufactu- ring, as well as the use of domestic and renewable energy, is promoted. Additional incentives are of- fered for domestically produced renewable ener- gy products and equipment. For this purpose, the renewable energy resource area (YEKA) model was formed. Moreover, the Renewable Energy Resources Support Scheme (YEKDEM), which is the tariff mechanism defi- ned for the period of July 1, 2021- December 31, 2025, was revised on January 30, 2021, and upda- ted to respond to changing situations. Türkiye carries out these initiatives to increase its energy generation capacity by developing envi- ronmentally sensitive sustainable models. On the other hand, while growing the renewable energy industry, Türkiye is not confined to wind and so- lar energy but is also working to create additional renewable energy sources. Türkiye, for example, has great potential in geo- thermal energy. Türkiye presently generates 3% of its power generation from geothermal resour- ces and intends to improve its geothermal ener- gy output in the future. Geothermal energy has the ability to boost national energy output while also accelerating local development, especially in 541 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD certain regions of Western Anatolia. Geothermal energy is expected to provide 5 W to energy gene- ration if Türkiye utilises its potential. As a result of the studies that started and conti- nued under the leadership of the MTA General Directorate with the support of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources and were further developed and increased by the private sector as a result of the information transfer of the MTA General Directorate, our country is currently ran- ked 1st in Europe and 4th in the world in terms of power generation from geothermal resources. Investments such as geothermal electricity pro- duction, which has been converted into invest- ments and reached approximately 1700 MW, ge- othermal greenhouse heating exceeding 4000 decares, housing/space heating exceeding the equivalent of 125,000 housing and geothermal facilities, hotels and spa facilities reaching 400, drying from geothermal energy, obtaining dry ice, fishing, have been realised thanks to the ra- pidly increasing geothermal resource exploration efforts after 2005 and the geothermal resource investments of the private sector. Another alternative renewable energy source is bioenergy. It is considered that Türkiye has seri- ous potential in energy generation with biomass. Agricultural wastes from agricultural areas, es- pecially in the Mediterranean region and Cent- ral Anatolia, are used for power generation. The energy generated via bioenergy increased to 7.6 GW from 2 GW in 2021. Due to government sup- port and an overall policy framework that encou- rages energy generation, the private sector's de- mand for bioenergy is increasing. Türkiye's energy potential remains mostly unre- ached, and utilising this potential is one of the country's top priorities. The current wind energy electricity capacity in Türkiye is 10.54 GW as of the end of 2021. The installation phases of faci- Descending Auction R-D Investments General Investment Incentives for Renewable Energy Guarantee of Purchase Domestic Equipment Production and R-D or Domestically Produce Equipment Use YEKA MODEL 542 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD lities that will boost wind energy generation by 2.07 GW are underway. Türkiye has unused wind energy potential totalling 11 GW in the seas and 37 GW in the coastal basin. With the establishment of the Clean Energy Re- search Institute (TEMEN), which is one of the institutes affiliated with TENMAK (Turkish Energy, Nuclear and Mineral Research Agency), the development of products and technologies in our country's clean energy processes, energy effi- ciency areas, and all energy sources, particularly renewable energy resources, as well as the deve- lopment of domestic products and technologies related to these areas, are intended to meet rese- arch and development needs. With the foundation of the Energy Research Insti- tute (ENAREN), an additional institute affiliated with TENMAK, it is intended to carry out R&D efforts for the development of domestic produ- cts and technologies for the production, supply, distribution, and consumption of our country's energy resources. The capacity used in the wind energy field is 10.6 GW, the goal for 2027 is 16 GW, and the potenti- al energy generation is 37 GW on the coast and 11 GW on the sea, for a total of 48 GW. Türkiye has a greater solar energy potential than other European countries, with an annual average sunshine duration of 7.5 hours and average annu- 543 TÜRKİYE IN THE WORLD al radiation of 1527.46 kWh/m2 and by the end of 2021, its installed capacity of electricity based on solar energy has reached 7.8 GW. Initiatives to invest in renewable energy will en- hance the demand for renewable energy equip- ment, such as wind turbines and photovoltaic panels. Türkiye will continue to encourage the do- mestic generation by supporting domestic genera- tion equipment. Renewable Energy Resources Areas (YEKA) Model In order to use renewable energy resources effi- ciently and effectively, Türkiye has developed the YEKA model and established large-scale YEKAs in particular regions. The YEKA Model has been developed to support the localisation objective as part of the National Energy and Mining Policy. The YEKA model ensures the right to generate and sell power at the specified price at the end of the process. The tender requires domestic equipment production and R&D efforts, as well as the use of domestically produced ready-made equipment. The YEKA model is essential for executing plan- ned projects and speeding the technology transfer. Türkiye is increasing its investments in renewable energy, and YEKA tenders are one of the most im- portant mechanisms utilised for this objective. In 2017, Türkiye held a YEKA tender for a solar power plant and a wind power plant, each with a 1 GW capacity. In 2019, a tender was held for a new wind power plant with a capacity of 1 GW that would span four regions. A wind energy facility tender has been/will be held in 2022 for two solar power plants spanning three regions with a capacity of 1 GW and 18 provinces with a capacity of 1.2 GW, as well as a wind energy plant spanning twenty regions with a capacity of 850 MW. The Primary Benefits of YEKA Tenders 1. YEKA regions are selected based on their high potential for power generation. On the basis of the large scale of the projects (about 1 GW), it is anticipated that the winning bid- ders will benefit from economies of scale. 2. A fixed and predictable price is guaranteed to the winning bidder for a specific period of time. (The initial tenders include a 15-year energy purchase guarantee or be limited to the total amount of energy generation in- dicated in the tender notice.) The winning bidder is granted the right to utilise the de- signated area and benefit from the connec- tion capacity. 3. If the tender involves R&D activities, the winning bidder has the right to benefit from the incentives provided for R&D centres. Ot- her incentives designed in Türkiye's incenti- ve system can also be provided to energy or related equipment production facilities. Other Public Services HEALTHCARE - COMMUNITY HEALTH POLICIES - PRIVATE HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE - INTERNATIONAL EVACUATION AND AID DURING THE PANDEMIC OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 548 Healthcare After the 1950s, the structure of healthcare ser- vices in Türkiye shifted from one that prioritised preventative healthcare services to one that cons- tantly developed and focused on curative health- care services. The three main categories of healthcare are pre- ventative, curative, and rehabilitative care. The- re are three levels of service providers: primary, secondary, and tertiary. In our country, primary healthcare services are mainly provided through Family Healthcare Centres (ASM), Healthy Life Centres and Community Health Centres (TSM). Family Medicine, the essential component of the Health Transformation Program, which was initi- ated in 2003, was implemented in all provinces in 2010. All services in this practice are provided free of charge, including preventative healthcare ser- vices, curative services, home healthcare services, mobile healthcare services, vaccinations, scree- nings, examinations and medical tests in primary care. In order to improve the primary healthcare services provided by the ASMs and TSMs and to make them easier to access, Healthy Life Centres have been put into operation. These centres con- tinue to function in order to protect people from health risks in the fields of nutrition consultation, chronic diseases and physical activity consulting, women's and reproductive health consulting, and preventative oral and dental care consulting. In the past 21 years, significant advancements have been made in the fight against maternal and new- born mortality. In 2001, the infant mortality rate was 36 per thousand live births for infants un- der one-year-old and 43.1 for infants under five years old; on the other hand, by 2021, the infant mortality rate has decreased to 9.1 per thousand live births for infants under one year old and 10.6 for infants under five years old. The enhanced vaccination program that has been in operation since the early 2000s has had a significant role in this. Our current DTaP-IPV vaccination rate is 95.5 per cent. Every year, an average of 46 milli- on doses of vaccine and antiserum supply, logis- tics, and temperature monitoring are performed using the Vaccine Tracking System (ATS), which was introduced in 2010. Private healthcare faci- lities were included in the scope of the ATS, and the total number of temperature monitoring devi- ces was increased in order to ensure efficient use of preventative and primary healthcare services. At the beginning of 2015, the ATS stock feature OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 549 was put into service, and the system's integrati- on with other relevant information management systems was completed. Additionally, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the vaccine's development proceeded, and the local vaccine TURKOVAC was developed using inactivated vaccine technology in collaboration with Erciyes University and the Health Institutes of Türkiye (TÜSEB). Cancer monitoring programs for early diagnosis are the subject of another initiative for preventa- tive services. These services are provided in 336 centres through the Cancer Early Diagnosis, Scre- ening and Training Center (KETEM) and mobile monitoring instruments. In addition, the web-ba- sed Cancer Module of the Public Health Manage- ment System has begun to be used. With the support of Migrant Health Centres and temporary housing facilities, our country also offers free medical treatment to migrants and re- fugees inside its borders. In addition to primary healthcare, internal medicine, paediatrics, obs- tetrics and gynaecology, oral and dental care, and psychosocial support services are provided in the Extended Migrant Health Centres established in settlements where there are over 20,000 migrants and refugees. These services are supported by medical imaging units and basic laboratory ser- vices. These services are provided by 132 Migrant Health Centres, 792 Migrant Health Units, and 37 Extended Migrant Health Centres, according to data from 2021. These facilities were constituted as "TSM Affiliated Units" in accordance with the "Regulation on Community Health Centres and Affiliated Units." The Ministry of Health, as well as private persons, foundations, associations, and universities, offer secondary and tertiary healthcare services. The main structure of these levels is inpatient treat- ment institutions, which provide advanced exa- mination and treatment services. In our country, there are 1,534 hospitals with a total bed capacity of 251.180 as of 2020. 13 of the- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 550 se hospitals are campus-plan city hospitals with cutting-edge technologies and infrastructure. The number of beds in hospitals of the Ministry of He- alth increased from 156,965 in 2020 to 159,340 in 2021, and the number of hospital beds in univer- sity and private hospitals increased from 41,987 and 52,230 in 2020 to 41,157 and 53,486 in 2021, respectively. In 2020, 42.2 per cent of applications to physicians were made to institutions providing primary healthcare services, while 57.8 per cent were made to secondary and tertiary healthca- re institutions. For the purpose of increasing the number of secondary and tertiary bed capacity, 832 units are still under construction. Another important part of Türkiye's healthcare system is emergency medical services. Pre-hos- pital emergency medical services were spread throughout the country in 1994 when emergency medical services were systematically established. According to data from the Ministry of Health, a total of 5,840 land ambulances, 12 ambulance he- licopters, 3 air ambulances, and 3,221 stations, 522 of which are equipped ambulances, are available for emergency medical services as of April 2022. Furthermore, six water ambulances located in Ça- nakkale (Gökçeada), Balıkesir (Marmara Island), and Istanbul (Büyükada, Büyükdere) are used for emergency medical services. Since the service's inauguration, a total of 16,459 patients, 15,308 patients domestically and 1,150 patients interna- tionally, have been transferred to treatment cent- res by air ambulances, along with 38,736 patients transferred by ambulance helicopters. With stati- oned vehicles, service is currently available in 12 regions (Adana, Ankara, Antalya, Diyarbakır, Er- zurum, İstanbul, İzmir, Kayseri, Konya, Samsun, Trabzon, Van). Organ, medicine, and antidote transport are also conducted in addition to pa- tient transportation by air ambulance vehicles. Healthcare services in disasters are another ser- vice of the Turkish healthcare system that sets an example to the world. For this purpose, the “He- althcare Organisations Project in Disasters” was put into practice, and the National Medical Res- cue Teams (UMKE) were established with the ap- proval dated December 30, 2003, and numbered OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 551 5442. Today, UMKE serves is supported by 11,555 personnel. As of March 2022, our country, which aims to be the leading country in health tourism, has inked bilateral agreements with 96 international ins- titutions. In addition, the delivery of healthcare services abroad continues. In this regard, there are inpatient treatment institutions in countries such as Sudan, Somalia, Niger and Palestine. Nu- merous service-oriented projects have been imp- lemented as part of efforts in the field of health informatics. The Central Physician Appointment System (MHRS) and the e-Nabız system are the two most important systems among them. In or- der to facilitate appointment processes, services such as the e-Government login option on the web and mobile, appointment cancellation, ap- pointment request application and appointment reminder, and alternative hospital appointment application have been included in the MHRS por- tal, which was established for the purpose of re- ceiving services in a more flexible and calm envi- ronment for those applying to health institutions, reducing the crowds in front of the polyclinics and the hospitals, reducing or eliminating the waiting time before the examination. E-Nabız Personal Healthcare System is a national healthcare sys- tem software that allows healthcare professionals and citizens to access health data obtained from healthcare facilities online via mobile devices and enables healthcare managers at all levels to create reports, and it is used by 60,078,822 people today. In order to store the examinations, medical image data, radiological reports, and clinical documents in the healthcare facilities on the servers of the Ministry of Health in accordance with internatio- nal standards and to access these images from va- rious healthcare facilities, a Teleradiology System was established and put into operation. With the "Healthcare Services Requiring Special Services in Türkiye 2011-2023" study published in 2011, a significant improvement was seen in par- ticular services (such as cardiovascular surgery, oncology, bone marrow and organ transplantati- on, stroke centres, hand surgery centres, intensi- ve care units). In this way, international standar- ds for physical infrastructure have been met in a number of specialised services. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 552 N on-communicable diseases (NCDs) are one of the most widespread epidemics in the world today. 38 million (68 per cent) of the 56 million deaths that occurred in 2012 were due to non-communicable diseases. Non-com- municable diseases are caused by widespread, preventable risk factors. These factors include al- cohol abuse, bad eating habits, tobacco use, and sedentary lifestyles. The High Council for the Fi- ght Against Addiction was established in order to combat addictions such as tobacco, alcohol and drugs. In adults as well as children and adoles- cents, obesity is a significant public health prob- lem around the world. The Dietary Guidelines for Türkiye were released in 2015, and the Canteen Circular, which was first published in 2011 to pro- mote the development of healthy eating habits, was amended and put into effect in the 2016–2017 academic year. In addition, the Türkiye Healthy Nutrition and Active Life Program Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Adult and Childhood Obesity and Physical Activity 2019-2023 has been prepared. In 79 provinces, 181 Community Mental Health Centres (TRSM) were established to offer com- munity-focused healthcare services. Along with these centres, programs to protect mental health such as the Psychosocial Support Practitioner Program, the Psychosocial Support Program in Social Traumas and Disasters, and the Combating Domestic Violence against Women Program are carried out. In 2016, the proportion of individuals requiring home healthcare services exceeded the target set for 2017 and reached 97%. Until 2021, the number of patients receiving home healthcare services was recorded as 3,661,606. COMMUNITY HEALTH POLICIES OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 554 I ndividuals in our country can access healt- hcare services from both governmental and private healthcare facilities. According to data from 2020, 566 of the 1,534 hospitals in the country are private hospitals. With the regulati- ons made, the burden of the public in the supp- ly of healthcare services has been distributed among private healthcare facilities, making it ea- sier to deliver healthcare services. In this regard, the General Health Insurance (GSS) application has been introduced, which essentially assures the protection of people's health and covers the expenditures incurred in case of health risks. The "Social Insurance and General Health Insurance Law" came into force on October 1, 2008, enab- ling sick individuals to apply to private health- care facilities for outpatient or inpatient treat- ment. Within the scope of the GSS, people can get care at one of the hospitals they prefer that has a contract with the institution by paying a lower fee difference. Healthcare services are made ava- ilable to the entire population equally and free of charge within the framework of the GSS, funded by premiums and taxes. Individuals who want to be examined for any ailment get an appointment first and then have free access to all healthcare facilities, including examination, medical tests, laboratory services, imaging services, and outpa- tient or inpatient treatment. PRIVATE HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 556 D uring the COVID-19 pandemic, the Mi- nistry of Health has been in close con- tact with the World Health Organisation (WHO). Meetings were held with the WHO Regio- nal Director for Europe on a monthly basis via vi- deoconference in order to follow the regional and global developments regarding COVID-19 and to address the experiences and strategies of the country and other countries at the highest level. Since the beginning of the pandemic, the Ministry of Health has provided aid to numerous countries to reduce the pandemic's effects and contribute to global health. It has assisted 160 countries and 14 international organisations in their efforts to combat the pandemic. The Ministry of Health, the Ministry of National Defense, the Turkish Co- operation and Coordination Agency (TIKA), the Turkish Red Crescent, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Interior, and associations provided in-kind aid to 131 countries. These aids were provided in the form of grants for medical devices and equipment (protective gear, diagnos- tic kits, medicines, and respirators), monetary assistance, and requests for purchase and export permits. In order to contribute to the fight of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) against the pandemic, a 100-bed pandemic hos- pital, the construction of which was undertaken by Türkiye, was built, and the construction of the Türkiye-Albania Fier Friendship Hospital was completed. To ensure that individuals residing in places where the risk of COVID-19 is high return home as soon as possible with international fli- ghts, a cargo jet, Koca Yusuf, equipped with me- dical supplies, flew to the Chinese city of Wuhan, and the citizens were successfully evacuated. INTERNATIONAL EVACUATION AND AID DURING THE PANDEMIC TRANSPORTATION AND IMPORTANT PROJECTS -- DEVELOPMENTS IN TRANSPORTATION -- A GROUND-BREAKING PROJECT IN WORLD TUNNELLING: THE EURASIA TUNNEL -- -- YAVUZ SULTAN SELİM BRIDGE AND NORTHERN MARMARA HIGHWAY -- 1915 ÇANAKKALE BRIDGE AND MALKARA-ÇANAKKALE HIGHWAY -- ISTANBUL AIRPORT PROJECT MARMARAY PROVIDES UNINTERRUPTED RAIL TRANSPORT BETWEEN THE CONTINENTS OF ASIA AND EUROPE OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 560 A total of 172.3 billion dollars was invested in Türkiye's transportation and commu- nication fields between 2003 and 2021, resulting in a GDP contribution of 520.1 billion dollars, the production output of 1 trillion 79 bil- lion dollars, and the employment of 17.9 million people. The "life-dream dilemma" became a "life-dream combination" during this period. Türkiye has become one of the top countries in its region and the world thanks to a series of interna- tional projects. There are now 3,111 transportation and communi- cation projects, 500 of which are major projects. In recent years, Türkiye has emerged as a country that sets global standards for change, transforma- tion, and development. Policies based on “digitalisation, mobility, logisti- cs” have an important place in future targets. Intermodal integration is critical for achieving equality and balance in the transportation of pe- ople, freight, and data. Total investment in transportation and communi- cation in the years 2022-2053 is estimated to be 197.9 billion dollars, resulting in a GDP contributi- on of $1 trillion 8 billion dollars, production of $1 trillion 935.9 billion dollars, and employment cre- ation of 27.7 million. Türkiye attaches great importance to developing regional connectivity and leads and supports various initiatives for this purpose. In this con- text, the official opening of the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars Railway Line, which forms the backbone of the "Trans-Caspian International East-West Middle Transport Corridor" initiative, was held on Oc- tober 30, 2017. Since its inception, this line has transported more than 1 million net tonnes of fre- ight. Major projects such as Marmaray, the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, the Istanbul Airport, and the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge, which Türkiye has const- ructed in the last decade, have all contributed to improving regional connectivity. DEVELOPMENTS IN TRANSPORTATION OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 562 Railway From the year of our Republic's foundation in 1923 until 1950, the railway enjoyed a golden period that was not fully appreciated between 1950-2003. Our country has begun to offer world-class ra- ilway services thanks to the railway mobilisation initiated in 2003. As of June 2022, the total railway network is 13,050 kilometres. 7,122 kilometres of these are signal lines, and 6,052 kilometres of these are electrified lines. The length of the high-speed and fast lines is 1,460 kilometres. Türkiye is Europe's sixth-largest high-speed line operator and the eighth largest worldwide. In 2022, YHT (high-speed train) lines transported 64.54 million passengers. The goal for 2022 is to transport 71,97 million passengers. Ankara-Eskişehir, Ankara-Konya, Ankara-Istan- bul and Konya-Karaman YHT lines provided fast and comfortable travel on the railway. Ankara-Sivas high-speed train project has ente- red the last stage of construction. Hard work continues on the Ankara-İzmir YHT line. This project, which will connect Central Anatolia with the Aegean, will make a significant contribution to the integration of the national ra- ilway network. The first stage of Marmaray, described as the pro- ject of the century, was put into service in 2013 between the Ayrılık Çeşmesi and Kazlıçeşme. The entire Gebze-Halkalı Line was operated in 2019. Along with the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars Railway, Mar- maray is a key component of the Modern Railway Silk Road. Beijing to London railway travel is now possible without interruption thanks to these two projects. It has been ensured that our country gets a larger share of the world’s trade volume and that Eastern Express OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 563 our nation's economic and social welfare levels are increased. According to the railway target of the 2053 Transport and Logistics Master Plan; • Passenger transportation ratio will be increa- sed from 0.96 per cent to 6.20 per cent, freight transportation ratio will be increased from 5.08 per cent to 21.93 per cent. • The number of provinces with high-speed tra- in and high-speed train connections will be increased from 8 to 52. • Annual passenger transport will be increased from 19.5 million to 269.8 million. • Annual freight transport will reach 448 milli- on tonnes from 55 million tonnes. • A safe, fast, efficient, and effective railway inf- rastructure will be available. • 35% of the total energy need will be met from renewable energy sources. • The number of logistics centres will be incre- ased from 13 to 26. • Türkiye will be among the top 10 countries in the logistics performance index. • Dry port system will be developed and expan- ded. • Türkiye will become a logistics base in the middle corridor. • The number of logistics centres where effec- tive business management in international standards is adopted will be increased. • Digital transformation will be supported. • Customs control processes will be accelera- ted, and their effectiveness will be increased. Highway The divided road length as of June 2022 is 28,664 kilometres. 3,633 kilometres of this is the highway. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 564 The Turkish road transportation network, which connects Europe and Asia due to its geographi- cal location, constitutes an important part of the main international arteries. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, which opened in 2018, has had a significant impact on internatio- nal trade. The Eurasia Tunnel, which opened in 2016, not only alleviated urban traffic congestion in Istan- bul, one of the most significant commercial cities in the world, but also achieved a prominent place among tunnels constructed beneath the sea. 1915 Çanakkale Bridge, which was opened in 2022, has been a source of glory and pride for our country as the 4th bridge between Asia and Euro- pe. As soon as it was opened, it started to play a major role in transporting the passengers and fre- ight from the Aegean and Western Anatolia to the European continent. Contributions of 122.9 billion dollars to the Gross Domestic Product, 265 billion dollars to produc- tion, and 5.3 million employees to employment were the returns of the 112.4 billion dollars hi- ghway investment undertaken between 2003 and 2021. According to the Highway Target of the 2053 Transport and Logistics Master Plan; • Annual freight transport ratio will be reduced from 71.39 per cent to 57.47 per cent • Accident rates will be reduced with fast, safe road infrastructure equipped with smart and autonomous technologies. • Electric charging infrastructure will be estab- lished according to the travel plans. • Appropriate infrastructures will be created for electric vehicles. • Electricity and alternative energy use will be increased instead of fossil fuels on highways. Maritime Since 2003, Turkish maritime, which has been reviewed and revitalised, has played a significant role in boosting our country's trade volume. Filyos Port OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 565 As a result of the tremendous efforts undertaken between 2003 and 2021, Turkish-flagged ships were removed from the black list and placed on the White List. The installed capacity of Türkiye's shipyards has reached 4.65 million deadweight tonnes. In 2021, when the Republic's exports hit an all-ti- me high, the majority of international trade was conducted by sea. The maritime export ranked top with 133 billion 961 million USD among the export lines. The sha- re of exports made by sea in total exports was 59.4 per cent. In 2021, 133 billion 961 million dollars of Türkiye's total exports of 225.4 billion dollars and 157 billi- on 434 million dollars of its total imports of 271.4 billion dollars were transported by sea. According to the Maritime Target of the 2053 Transport and Logistics Master Plan; • The number of port facilities will be increased from 217 to 255. • Green Port applications will be expanded. • Highly renewable energy resources will be used in our ports. • Autonomous ship trips will be developed and handling efficiency will be increased with au- tonomous systems at ports. • The transit service capacity of the ports will be increased and a multi-modal and short-dis- tance maritime transport infrastructure that can serve the countries of the region will be developed. • With the Canal Istanbul project, navigational safety will be increased in the Bosphorus. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 566 Airway The most significant advances in the history of Turkish civil aviation took place between 2003 and 2021. Turkish Airlines serves as one of the most presti- gious brands in Europe and the world. Istanbul Airport serves as one of the most presti- gious projects that Türkiye has given to the wor- ld transportation systems network in the field of civil aviation. Since its opening in 2018, Istanbul Airport, one of the largest airports in the world, has been one of the most contemporary airports for both domestic and international flights. Thanks to Istanbul Airport, our country has beco- me one of the "hubs" of the world. Following Ordu-Giresun Airport, constructed on the sea and put into service in 2015, Rize-Artvin Airport, similarly constructed on the sea, was opened in 2022. These airports are evidence of the advanced engineering standards in our country. In addition, they are projects that enhance our country's reputation abroad. As of June 2022; The number of operational airports increased from 26 to 57. Annual terminal capacity has increased from 60.2 million passengers to 334.7 million passengers. The number of countries with air transport agree- ments increased from 81 to 173. There are flights to 341 international destinations. With a total of 579 large-bodied aircraft, Türkiye has become one of the leading countries in world civil aviation. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 567 In 2021, 128.56 million passengers preferred to use the airway. The year-end target for 2022 is 193.28 million passengers. In 2021, when the Republic's exports hit an all-ti- me high, 26.08 billion dollars out of 271.4 billion dollars were imported by air. Air transportation accounted for 18.7 billion dol- lars of the 225.4 billion exports over the same time frame. According to the airway target of the 2053 Transport and Logistics Master Plan; • The annual average number of passengers will be increased from 112.4 million to 344.4 million. • Emission monitoring, reporting, verification infrastructure will be established, and carbon emissions will be strategically managed. • Environmentally friendly bio-fuels and/or synthetic fuels will be produced in airline transportation. • Regional air cargo transportation will be de- veloped Rize-Artvin Airport OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 568 Eurasia Tunnel Opened on December 20, 2016 T he Eurasia Tunnel is the first and only doub- le-deck highway tunnel connecting Asia and Europe continents beneath the seabed. This project has introduced a new era in the field of tunnelling by successfully blazing a trail in both the construction and operating phases. It has paved the way for numerous previously unimaginable projects and sparked a tunnelling trend that aims for deeper, broader, and longer tunnels. The five-km-long Eurasia Tunnel is part of a 14.6 km-long route, including approach roads, on the Kazlıçeşme-Göztepe line, where vehicle traffic in Is- tanbul is the heaviest (Figure 1: Route). The tunnel shortens the Göztepe-Bakırköy line by approxima- tely 10 km, reducing the average travel time of this route from 100 minutes to 15 minutes. Due to the significance of this investment, reputab- le firms from across the world participated in the design and supervision of this unique project. The entire Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) contract for the project was undertaken by the YMSK-JV joint venture established with SK Ecop- lant under the leadership of Yapı Merkezi Holding. Construction of the Project The construction of the project, which began in 2013, was completed on December 22, 2016, eight months ahead of schedule, in three years and eleven months. The 5-km-long tunnel is one of the exemp- lary structures created by combining human intel- ligence and machine technology. The 3.4-km strait crossing, the deepest point of which is 106.4 m be- low sea level, was built using the "TBM" tunnel bo- ring machine, which was developed specifically for the project. The TBM ranks first in the world with a cutter head power of 33,3 kW/m2 and sixth with an operating pressure of 12 bars for a 13.7-m excavation diameter. Route A GROUND-BREAKING PROJECT IN WORLD TUNNELLING: THE EURASIA TUNNEL OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 570 TBM The TBM tunnel construction works were comple- ted in 476 days, 11,243 hours, at an average speed of 7 m/day, with three teams operating around the clo- ck, seven days a week. Due to the ever-changing ge- ological conditions, hyperbaric maintenance-repair operations were required four times throughout the excavation and were all successfully performed by "specially trained divers." One of these operations had to be performed close to the tunnel's deepest point. With the successful completion of this repa- ir-maintenance operation, which had to be perfor- med in an unprecedented pressure environment of 10.8 bar, a global "first" was accomplished, and the excavation's continuation was ensured. The seismic bracelets used to strengthen the Eu- rasia Tunnel's earthquake resistance are anot- her characteristic that makes it one of the most remarkable structures in the world. The tunnel, situated 17 km from the North Anatolian Fault, is supported by two seismic bracelets designed to decrease the stress and displacements caused by the seismic activity to a tolerable level. Given its geometric dimensions and the intensity of seismic activity to which it will be exposed, the TBM was the "first" technology in the tunnelling industry to include these characteristics. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 571 Geological Profile The Eurasia Tunnel is not only a noteworthy pro- ject in terms of design and engineering but also in terms of its human-centred business strategy. The tunnel was completed by a total of 700 engineers and more than 12,000 employees, 95% of whom are Turkish, putting in 14 million person/hour of work. One of the greatest gains was that no fata- lities or significant injuries occurred during the construction. During both the construction and operating sta- ges, the potential environmental and social im- pacts of the project were meticulously evaluated, and applications were carried out in accordance with international and local standards. On the European side, the coastal path between the city and the sea was extended from 55 m to 277 m, so enhancing the link between the city and the sea. In the coastal park on the European side, 11,642 new trees were planted, 2.7 km of bicycle lanes and pedestrian walkways were built, and playgrounds and exercise facilities were renovated. Access to the newly restored coastal park has been made possible by the construction of pedestrian over- passes and pedestrian level crossings compliant with accessibility standards. To pay homage to history and Mimar Sinan (Arc- hitect Sinan) in the interior architectural and ligh- ting designs, approach arches and portals of the Eurasia Tunnel, patterns and lines such as 'gülbe- zek' and 'çarkıfelek' were used. Tunnel Portal with Gülbezek-Çarkıfelek Ornaments Special importance was attached to air quality as part of the project. The first green concept, "bio- filtration application," in Türkiye was realised in an area of 7,300 m2 around the ventilation shaft on the European side. Biofiltration The project's operation centre was designed as a green building, and it won the LEED Gold Certi- ficate for the points it earned in basic categories, including energy conservation, recycling, and sus- tainability. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 572 Operation and Maintenance The meticulous approach employed during the Eurasia Tunnel's construction phase continues with the implementation of life-long computing principles and smart systems to ensure safe and efficient traffic flow during the operation period. Upholding the "human first" principle, necessary "prevention" plans for all foreseeable situations were developed and introduced in the SCADA System. All systems, including energy, ventilati- on, lighting, traffic signs, radio announcements, and access control, can operate automatically and in tandem. With over 400 cameras and automa- tic event detection systems, out-of-the-ordinary events such as accidents and vehicle breakdowns can be identified promptly (Image 6: Control Centre). Operation Centre OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 573 In the event of an emergency, trained rescue crews respond, arriving on motorbikes designed exclu- sively for the tunnel's structure. While the average response time was three minutes when the opera- tion initially launched, it was lowered to less than two minutes due to enhancements made in just 20 months. In addition to the first LED lighting solution ins- talled in a tunnel in Türkiye, the Speed Regulating Moving Lighting (Pacemaker) System, which has been in place since June 2020, has ensured that vehicle speeds remain stabilised. Model of Financing The overall investment cost of the Project, which was realised through the Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) model by the Ministry of Transport and In- frastructure of the Republic of Türkiye's Directo- rate General of Infrastructure Investments, is USD 1.245 billion. USD 285 million has been covered by the investors: Yapı Merkezi Holding and SK Ecop- lant. The remaining USD 960 million is made up of international loans with maturity of 18 years. The aforementioned financing, with an 18-year maturity, has become the longest-term loan pac- kage among the build-operate-transfer infrastru- cture projects completed in Türkiye to date. Economic Impacts According to an analysis based on Istanbul Metro- politan Municipality statistics, 4.7 million vehic- les with various licence plates used the tunnel 77 million times over the course of five years. When less fuel, emissions, and fewer accident costs were incorporated, an average of 137 TL in daily two- way trips, as well as one hour of time savings, were garnered in 2021. Over the last five years, the pro- ject has contributed around USD 972 million to the national economy by saving 103 million hours of time, 139 thousand tonnes of fuel, 50 thousand tonnes of CO2 emissions, and reduced car acci- dent expenses due to 325 million fewer vehicle kilometres. The Eurasia Tunnel has been an exemplary pro- ject that has always been closely followed by sec- toral stakeholders around the world, with several firsts and successful applications in its develop- ment. The project was awarded five international construction awards as a result of the comprehen- sive analysis of numerous criteria by the most re- putable organisations in the sector; it has received a total of 14 awards. The Eurasia Tunnel, one of the most cutting-edge construction projects, will continue to serve an important purpose not just now but also for years to come. The Eurasia Tunnel is the first and only double-decker highway tunnel connecting the continents of Asia and Europe beneath the seabed. DID YOU KNOW? OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 574 Marmaray The Centennial Story of Marmaray S ultan Abdulmejid first mentioned the Mar- maray Project in the 1860s. Sultan Abdulhamid II commissioned the French in 1892 to create a project that differed sig- nificantly from what we see now. In 1979, Marmaray reappeared, but no concrete action was taken. The tender for the Marmaray Project, which oc- casionally reappeared in the years to come, was issued in 2003, and on May 9, 2004, the project's foundation was laid, and construction officially began. The specifications of the Marmaray Bospho- rus Tube Crossing The 1.4-kilometre segment of Marmaray under the sea has 11 joined end-to-end tubes. The seaflo- or was drilled to the bottom using a tunnel boring machine (TBM). While the tubes were positioned here, rock fillings were later made and then cove- red. That's why diving to the seafloor won't reveal the Marmaray Bosphorus Tube Crossing. Built with advanced technology in partnership with Turkish and Japanese companies, Marma- ray is an earthquake-resistant system utilised in many countries around the world. The Specifications of the Marmaray Sets • The maximum speed of Marmaray sets is 105 km/h, and the operating speed is 80 km/h. • 20 5-piece sets have a capacity of 1637 (248 se- ated, 1387 standing passengers). • 34 10-piece sets have a capacity of 3056 (508 seated, 2548 standing passengers). • Air conditioning, a camera surveillance sys- tem, a fire alarm system, and both written, and audio passenger information systems are standard on all wagons. • In each set's wagon, a designated area is reser- ved for passengers with disabilities. MARMARAY PROVIDES UNINTERRUPTED RAIL TRANSPORT BETWEEN THE CONTINENTS OF ASIA AND EUROPE OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 576 First envisioned in 1892, this idea was realised in 2013. The age-old dream has come true. Marmaray, serving nearly 715.3 million people from the day it began operations until June 2022, carried an average of 499 thousand passengers per day in 2022, with this number rising to 648,000 on jam-packed days. Marmaray, Project of the Century, is the cornersto- ne of both Istanbul's urban public transportation, mainline passenger transportation, and intercon- tinental freight transportation. High-speed trains run through Marmaray and re- ach Halkalı, making life easier for those living on Istanbul's European side. With the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railway line and the Marmaray, which forms the golden ring of the Middle Corridor, loads are transported uninter- ruptedly in a large hinterland from China to Euro- pe. Between April 17, 2020, when freight trains first began to operate on Marmaray and May 17, 2022, a total of 1828 freight trains, 958 bound for Europe and 870 for Asia, passed through Marma- ray. A total of 1.5 million tonnes of cargo were de- livered by passing through Marmaray with 1828 trains, most of which were international freight trains. • Through Marmaray, the Project of the Century, it takes only 4 minutes to travel from Asia to Europe. • In 2013, the idea put forward in 1892 came to life. The centuries- old dream became a reality. DID YOU KNOW? OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 577 Marmaray provides services in integration with metrobus, tram, and other rail systems. Thus, it is possible to reach many parts of Istanbul economi- cally, quickly and comfortably. Thousands of car owners choose Marmaray, whi- ch introduces radical solutions to the urban public transportation of the international metropolis of Istanbul to avoid traffic, preventing the emission of thousands of tonnes of toxic gases into the en- vironment and saving thousands of liras in toxic gas charges. Furthermore, millions of hours are saved, consi- dering that those who prefer Marmaray save an hour on average compared to those who use other means of transportation. Istanbul's History has changed with the Dis- covery of Ruins on Marmaray The Marmaray Project also changed the historical facts. With the discovery of the historical ruins, Istanbul’s known history has been established to date back 8,500 years, up from 6,000. Marmaray is One of the Most Important Pro- jects in the World Marmaray, which enables uninterrupted rail transportation between Asia and Europe, is one of the most important projects in the world. The 13.6-kilometre Ayrılık Çeşmesi-Kazlıçeşme section of Marmaray, which is the backbone of Is- tanbul's urban passenger transportation, was put into service on October 29, 2013, the 90th anniver- sary of our Republic. Thus, a dream has become a reality. The 1.4 kilometre Marmaray Bosphorus Tube Tunnel has made train travel between the Asian and European continents possible in 4 mi- nutes. The 76.3-kilometre Gebze-Halkalı section, which covers the entire project, was put into operation on March 13, 2019. The average travel time on the Gebze-Halkal line has been reduced to 108 minutes thanks to the Marmaray, which has 43 stations. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 578 T he Northern Marmara highway is one of the most significant transportation invest- ments in our country, with a total length of 443 kilometres extending from the west of Istan- bul to the Akyazı district of Sakarya province. The construction of the Northern Marmara Highway began in 2013 using the Build-Operate-Transfer Model, and 398 kilometres of it have been put into service in sections and at different times throu- ghout the past few years. The remaining 45-kilo- metres-long Nakkaş-Başakşehir route is still un- der construction. The Northern Marmara Highway runs through the northern Marmara Region, passing through cities such as Istanbul, Kocaeli, and Sakarya, which have significant industrial and socio-cultural activities, as well as large population centres and inhabited cities that can be considered the lifeblood of our nation. This highway provides direct access to the city centres and major organised industrial zones of these cities. In addition, the Northern Marma- ra Highway is directly connected to the existing highway network, including the Istanbul-Edirne Highway, the Istanbul-Ankara Highway, and the Gebze-Orhangazi-İzmir Highway, and a comple- te integration has been achieved with the other main transport axes in the Marmara Region. This integration has facilitated Istanbul's access to the surrounding provinces, as well as the Aegean and Mediterranean regions. The Northern Marmara Highway greatly redu- ces traffic congestion in the cities along its route, particularly in Istanbul's downtown. The Nort- hern Marmara Highway will integrate the road, air, and rail transport modes via the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, which is designed to accommodate rail systems, in addition to being the most signi- ficant transport axis leading to Istanbul Airport, one of the world's largest airports. Our country, which connects Asia and Europe, will have more transport options and improved trade capacity thanks to the Northern Marmara Highway, which combines multiple modes of transport. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge is undoubtedly the most important structure along the Northern Marmara Highway. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bri- dge was constructed as the third long-span brid- YAVUZ SULTAN SELİM BRIDGE AND NORTHERN MARMARA HIGHWAY OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 580 ge across the Bosporus between the Garipçe and Poyrazköy neighbourhoods of Istanbul, where continents are within sight. The Yavuz Sultan Se- lim Bridge, which is a sophisticated engineering structure in terms of its design, building procedu- res, and material technology, is unquestionably a landmark in the history of engineering worldwi- de. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, which features a number of "the best of," holds a distinguished position among the engineering structures of the globe with the selection of its carrier system. De- signed as a hybrid of the suspension bridge and cable-stayed bridge, this bridge consists of the main cable, which is the primary carrier element of suspension bridges, and the suspension cables connected to this cable, as well as the stay cables that are directly connected from the deck to the tower, as seen in cable-stayed bridges. With this design, known as the high-rigidity suspension bridge or hybrid bridge, the bridge stands out as an exceptional example within its category. As a matter of fact, international organisations have awarded this design. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge has a total of ten lanes, comprising four highway lanes in the de- parture and arrival directions and two railway la- nes positioned in the middle of the highway plat- forms to accommodate high-speed and freight trains. Thus, the bridge's width reaches 59 metres, making it the world's widest suspension bridge. It also has a deck surface of 83,072 square metres in its centre span, which is equivalent to the size of ten large football fields. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge is the world's lon- gest suspension bridge, with towers measuring 322 metres in height. The bridge has a total len- Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 581 gth of 2,164 metres, with a centre span of 1,408 metres and side spans of 378 metres each. In this regard, the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge is the lon- gest rail-equipped suspension bridge in the world. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, known as a single deck since the railway and highway lanes are on the same level, is also quite impressive from an aesthetic standpoint. Steel was used to construct 1360 metres of the Ya- vuz Sultan Selim Bridge's 1408-meter centre span. High-strength sheets were cut, bent, and welded at various factories across our nation to create the steel deck, which was then assembled on the construction site. A regular segment of the steel deck, which is comprised of 59 segments in total, weighs 900 tonnes. The segments, which were brought to the bridge construction site individu- ally by ships from the factories where the parts were manufactured, were lifted to the deck level using special cranes on the bridge to create a road platform. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge has three kinds of cables: the main cable, suspension cables, and stay cables. By joining high-strength steel wires in factories, these cables were produced in vari- ous diameters and lengths. The overall length of the steel wires that make up the cables is 124,832 kilometres, which is equivalent to three circum- navigations of the globe. Besides, 229,500 m3 of reinforced concrete, 74,400 tonnes of structural steel, and 42,500 tonnes of reinforcing steel were utilised in the bridge's construction. The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge is one of the sym- bolic structures that will crown the new century of our Republic, which we will mark its centennial in 2023, with its modern, aesthetically pleasing, and advanced materials and engineering techniques. • Aerodynamic Design Tower and deck models, as well as full aeroelastic models, were tested in wind tunnel testing facilities in France and Italy in order to establish the aerodynamic behaviour. The region's wind records from the previous four decades were reviewed in order to calculate the design wind speed and ae- rodynamic parameters. By using the data collected from the Poyrazköy wind station and other nearby meteorological stations, the design wind speed was established, and an aerodynamic design was created. • Seismic Design Local ground conditions, faulting, past earthquakes, and other factors were taken into account in order to estimate the earthquake effects, and seismic design was created in light of these data and in accordance with national and international specifications. "DID YOU KNOW?" OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 582 1915 Çanakkale Bridge 1 915 Çanakkale Bridge was built as part of the Malkara-Çanakkale Highway Build-Opera- te-Transfer Project. "Malkara-Çanakkale Highway (including 1915 Ça- nakkale Bridge)" is 101 km long, 89 km of which is a Highway, and 12 km is a connection road. Hi- ghway Implementation Agreement Effective Date is March 16, 2018. Malkara-Çanakkale Highway and 1915 Çanakkale Bridge, which were comple- ted in a short period of 4 years, were put into ope- ration on March 18, 2022, by our President Recep Tayyip ERDOĞAN. Projects like Malkara-Çanakkale Highway and the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge will serve as an inspirati- on for future construction projects in our country and inculcate pride, thanks to the features they have and the qualities they have. The Malkara-Çanakkale Highway project inc- luded the construction of 1 suspension bridge, 2 approach viaducts, 2 reinforced concrete viadu- cts, 6 underpass bridges, 6 hydraulic bridges, 43 overpasses (1 of which is ecological), 40 underpas- ses, 236 culverts of various sizes, 12 intersections (including intersections on state roads), 4 service facilities, 2 operations and maintenance centres, and 5 toll collection stations. With this highway, Çanakkale has attained a "Mas- terpiece Project" that is both worthy of its glorious history and the 21st century, and it has been crow- ned with an aesthetic and contemporary suspen- sion bridge befitting Çanakkale’s significance and dynamics. With the completion and connection to Gebze-İz- mir Highway of the project, which aims to ensure traffic safety, the safety of life and property, parti- cularly on the road that serves heavy vehicle-do- minated traffic, reduce travel time, contribute to the development of tourism and industry in the region, and create new investment areas needed by the industry, and to integrate ports, railway and air transportation systems in the region with road transportation projects, a new alternative to crossing the Bosporus was made possible by lin- king the rings of the highway chain surrounding the Marmara Sea. 1915 ÇANAKKALE BRIDGE AND MALKARA-ÇANAKKALE HIGHWAY OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 584 OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 585 OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 586 An important part of the One Belt, One Road Pro- ject has been completed. Türkiye's "Middle Cor- ridor" initiative under "One Belt One Road" will revive the historic Silk Road as part of the "One Belt One Road Project," which aims to establish an uninterrupted trade route from Beijing to London. The completion of the Malkara-Çanakkale Hi- ghway Project has resulted in an approximately 40-kilometre reduction in travel time compared to the current divided state road. At the same time, considering the time losses in crossing by ferry, a faster passage through the Dardanelles has been achieved, resulting in a reduction in tra- vel time. The waiting times for ferries to cross the Dardanelles, which can take hours during festive and holiday periods, and the travel time, which lasts between 1.5 and 5 hours, have been reduced to six minutes. It is estimated that the Malkara-Çanakkale Hi- ghway project's total annual time, fuel, and envi- ronmental savings will be 2,314 billion TL in 2022 prices with; • 1,244 billion TL of total annual time savings, • 1.044 billion TL of total annual savings in fuel consumption, including taxes, • 26 million TL of environmental savings • Annual employment impact of 60,000 peop- le. 1915 Çanakkale Bridge Its total length is 3,563 meters, with 2,023 meters of the main span and 770 meters of side spans. Together with the 365 and 680-meter approach viaducts, the total crossing length reaches 4,608 meters. The suspension bridge has 2x3 traffic la- nes. The bridge's deck is constructed as a double deck with a width of 45.06 meters and a height of 3.5 meters. The Suspension Bridge Tower Founda- tion is positioned freely on the improved seafloor at a depth of -45 m on the Asian side and -37 m on the European side. The bridge steel tower height is 318 m. (After installing the cannonball figure carried by Seyit Onbaşı on the towers, the tower's height will reach 334 m). It is the 1st largest main span suspension bridge in the world, given that the sizes of suspension brid- ges are determined by their main spans. 1915 Çanakkale Bridge OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 587 "DO YOU KNOW?" The Symbols of 1915 Çanakkale Bridge • The red and white colour of the towers represents our Red Flag. • The 2,023-meter main span between the two steel towers of the Suspension Bridge marks the 100th Anniversary of our Republic. • The 318-meter steel towers of the Suspension Bridge mark the Çanakkale Victory of March 18, 1915, which is of tremendous significance to Turkish and world history. • The cannonball figure, which will be installed on the 318-meter steel towers, symboli- zes the most critical moment of the Çanakkale War, one of the turning points in World History, and the independence of the Turkish Nation. The tower will reach a height of 334 m. • The patterns on the tie beams represent Turkish - Islamic Patterns. • Viaduct legs symbolize the Çanakkale Martyrs’ Monument. The Best of the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge • It is the longest suspension bridge in the world, with a main span of 2023 meters. • It is the suspension bridge with the highest tower in the world with a height of 318 me- ters. • The Earth's circumference could be orbited four times with the Main Cable's total wire length of 162 000 km. • In terms of area, the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge tower caissons (74 m x 83.3 m = 6.2 deca- res) are equivalent to one football field. • With 227 thousand m³ of Concrete used to construct the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge, 5,900 flats of 100 m² can be built, or a district with a 25,000 population can be established. • With 177 thousand tonnes of steel used to construct the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge, 177 thousand personal automobiles can be manufactured. • Considering the parameters of weight (155 tonnes)/height (318 meters), placing the upper tie beam of the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge towers was the world 's greatest heavy lifting operation. • An immersed caisson-type foundation positioned on the ground and reinforced with steel piles was chosen for the tower foundations to mitigate the seismic danger. As part of the ground reinforcement works carried out in the area where the tower foundati- ons are located, 165 steel piles with a diameter of 2.5 meters were driven in the Asian tower foundation, and 203 steel piles with the same diameter were driven in the Euro- pean tower foundation. • Taking into account the harsh wind and earthquake conditions, the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge was designed with the strength to endure these risks. • Considering the high wind speeds of the Çanakkale region, an orthotropic twin box-se- ction steel deck with a total width of 45.06 meters and a nine-meter central-refuge space was used in the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 588 O n 03.05.2013, a Build-Operate-Transfer tender was issued for the Istanbul Airport project. The project, which started to be built on an area of 76.5 million m2 on the Black Sea coast of Istanbul, is planned to be completed in 4 stages. At a ceremony conducted on October 29, 2018, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan officially put into service the project's first phase, which began the investment period with site delivery on May 1, 2015. On June 14, 2020, the third inde- pendent parallel runway, air traffic control tower, state guest house, and mosque were inaugurated, all of which would significantly contribute to the airport's development. Istanbul Airport, located 35 kilometres from the city centre, contains 566 check-in desks and 228 passport control desks. Passengers' time at the airport for pre-flight formalities is aimed to be minimised in this manner. Furthermore, Istanbul Airport distinguishes itself from other airports with its parking lot, which has a total capacity of 40 thousand vehicles, 18 thousand of which are indoors and 22 thousand of which are outdoors. 146 destinations on six continents may now be re- ached in three hours from Istanbul Airport, which connects to more than 120 countries and 60 capi- tals, and more than 250 international and domes- tic destinations. Flights to over 300 destinations will be scheduled from the airport, which will be home to 79 different airline companies once fully operational. 112,273,310 passenger traffic, including 30,521,074 domestic and 81,752,236 international traffic, was carried out between 06.04.2019 when the major relocation was completed, and until the end of 2021. When all the phases are completed: Terminal buildings with a total indoor area of rou- ghly 2 million m2, with an annual passenger capa- city of 150-200 million, with air bridges and the transportation rail system connection between them, • 6 runways, • Parallel taxiways, • Roughly 6.5 million m2 of the apron area, • VIP building, • Cargo and general aviation terminals, • State Guesthouse, • Outdoor and indoor parking areas with suffi- cient capacity, ISTANBUL AIRPORT PROJECT OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 590 OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 591 OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 592 • Technical blocks and towers, • All airport support buildings, such as fire bri- gade, garage buildings, power plants, treat- ment and waste collection facilities, • Hospitals, hotels, prayer rooms, museums, conference and exhibition halls, and commu- nity facilities will be serviced. Project Achievements: The aviation sector will receive a total of 32,399,000,000 €, with an investment cost of 10,247,000,000 € and a rental fee of 22,152,000,000 € + VAT to be paid to the administration. In particular, Istanbul, the core of the Turkish economy, offers nonstop flights to countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa within a 3,000-kilometer radius. Istanbul is the most important economic centre in Türkiye. With the catalytic effects it will pro- duce, a new and better airport to be built in this city, where the most employment is created and the services sector is the most developed in Tür- kiye, would positively affect all sectors that have forward and backward connections with the avi- ation industry. Europe's largest airport, which includes all the fa- cilities that should be in a modern airport and has all the comforts of the aviation industry, has been put into service in Istanbul and is an important hub. The airport project has been completed as an environmentalist, environmentally friendly, bar- rier-free, and green airport that generates its own energy. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 593 The modes of transportation (road, sea, and rail) connecting the airport to the city are being imp- lemented simultaneously with the airport project. With its hotel, dining, and shopping areas; mu- seum, library, mosque, and vocational high scho- ol; and active, innovative, and social responsibility activities that draw the entire society’s attention; the “Youth Lounge” it offers to the youth and fa- mily/child-friendly areas; and its infrastructure, cutting-edge technology, and high-level travel ex- perience, it is far more than merely a centre for aviation operations. Istanbul Airport, which received the "Digital Transformation Award" as part of the 16th ACI Europe Awards presented by the Airports Coun- cil International (ACI Europe), has been awarded "Europe's Best Airport" in the digital transfor- mation category. It was awarded "Europe's Best Airport" and "Accessible Airport" in the category of over 40 million passengers at the 17th ACI Euro- pe Awards. The airport garnered attention with its various services supplied on both the land and air sides of the terminal, as well as the culture of accessibility and the concept of the barrier-free airport it has built since the beginning of its de- sign phase. These services include special passen- ger service points, video call centre, voiced steps and adult diaper changing rooms. Istanbul Airport was named "Airport of the Year" in 2021 and 2022 in the "Air Transport Awards," which are among the most prestigious publicati- ons in the world aviation industry. It ranked second among the "World's Top 10 Airports" in the "World's Best Awards 2021" survey conducted by the renowned New York-based Tra- vel & Leisure Magazine. Condé Nast Traveller's "Readers' Choice" survey, which is part of Condé Nast, one of the world's largest publishing groups; and is also the travel and lifestyle magazine that is recognised as an authority on luxury travel, guide, and inspiration for travellers, named Istanbul Airport the world's second best airport in 2021. According to Skytrax, one of the most important aviation organisations in the international are- na, Istanbul Airport was awarded the title of "5 Star Airport" in 2020, making it one of only two airports in the world to receive both titles at the same time as the owner of the "5 Star Covid-19 Airport" rating, thanks to the measures it took against the pandemic. Operating in line with sustainable development principles and international standards, Istanbul Airport has been certified by the British Stan- dards Institution, an international certification organisation, by successfully completing its certi- fication efforts for ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems, ISO 10002 Customer Satisfaction Mana- gement Systems, ISO 14001 Environmental Mana- gement Systems, ISO 27001 Information Security Management System, and ISO 50001 Energy Ma- nagement System in 2020. EDUCATION -- TURKISH NATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEM -- EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF TÜRKIYE MAARIF FOUNDATION - HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN TÜRKIYE -- EDUCATION ABROAD -- MOBILITY OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 596 Turkish National Education System Education, which is one of the basic functions of the state, is carried out under the control and super- vision of the state in Türkiye. The Ministry of National Education (MoNE) is responsible for providing education services. The Constitution guarantees the right to education. Turkish National Education System Medional Speciality PhD III II I III IV II I II I Master Undergraduate PhD PhD III II I III IV II I II I III IV II I III IV V VI II I III IV V II I II I II I III II I Aassociate Degree Non-Formal Education - Adult Education - Continuous Education Preparatory Class Aassociate D. Open Learning Higher Education XII XI IX X XII XI IX X XII XI IX Preparatory Age X General Secondary Education Primary Education Vocational Technical Secondary Education Pre-Primary Education (Kindergarten and Nursery) III IV V VI VII VIII II I 3 5 6 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 National Education Statistics, Formal Education 2020'21 Master Undergraduate Undergraduate Undergraduate OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 597 The Turkish national education system consists of two main parts, formal education and non-for- mal education, to meet the educational needs of individuals. Formal Education Formal education includes pre-school, primary, secondary and higher education institutions. Pre-school Education Pre-school education is the first step of formal education and covers the education of children who have not reached the age of compulsory edu- cation. Although it is not a compulsory education During the academic year 2020–2021, about 27.5 million students were educated. Current Situation in Education (2020-2021 Academic Year) Education Level Number of Schools/ Classes Number of Students Number of Teachers Pre-school education 30.978 1.225.981 95.049 Primary education 43.601 10.541.360 677.735 Secondary education 12.972 6.318.602 382.109 FORMAL EDUCATION 87.551 18.085.943 1.154.893 NON-FORMAL EDU- CATION 18.092 9.250.777 92.742 TOTAL 105.643 27.336.720 1.247.635 OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 598 level, it is aimed that every child receives at least one year of pre-school education before beginning primary school. Pre-school education institutions can be established as independent kindergar- tens, or they can be established as practice clas- ses within the vocational and technical secondary education institutions and kindergarten classes within formal education and lifelong learning ins- titutions. In accordance with the general objecti- ves and basic principles of national education, the aims and duties of pre-school education are; 1. To ensure that children develop physically, mentally and emotionally and acquire good habits; 2. That children are prepared for primary edu- cation; 3. That a common environment of upbringing is provided for children who come from a disad- vantaged background; 4. That children speak Turkish properly and correctly. In the 2020-2021 academic year, 1,225,981 children received education in 30,978 pre-school education institutions in which 95,049 teachers were emp- loyed. Primary education In the 2020-2021 academic year, 5,328,391 stu- dents received education, and 306,937 teachers were employed in 24,576 primary schools. In the 2020-2021 academic year, 5,212,969 stu- dents received education, and 370,798 teachers were employed in 19,025 lower secondary schools. Textbooks for public primary school students are Pre-school education covers the education of children in the 3-5 age group. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 599 provided free of charge by the state. Regional boarding secondary schools (YBO) were established to provide education services for stu- dents at the secondary school level who reside in rural villages and sub-village settlements without a school and who lack access to transported edu- cation. The state covers all expenses of students receiving in YBOs. In the 2020-2021 academic year, a total of 57,050 boarding students were edu- cated in 286 Regional Boarding Secondary Scho- ols. Transported primary education is implemented in order to provide higher quality education and training opportunities for children at the primary school level who live in sparsely populated and dispersed settlements without a school and for students studying in schools that use multi-gra- de classrooms. In the 2020-2021 academic year, 722,119 students from 41,845 schools and sett- lements without a school were transported to 12,058 schools on a daily basis. Distance education services are provided to en- sure equal opportunity in education and support the education provided at the primary education level. The most notable example of these services is the Open Primary School, an education system that provides the opportunity to complete eight years of primary education to all citizens at home or abroad who have previously graduated from primary school but could not continue to lower secondary school for any reason. In the 2020- 2021 academic year, 128,433 students received education within the scope of open education in lower secondary schools. Upper Secondary Education Upper Secondary education includes all general, vocational and technical education institutions and vocational education centres that provide four-year compulsory formal or non-formal edu- cation based on primary and lower secondary education. Upper secondary education consists of high scho- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 600 ols that implement various programmes. Every student who has completed primary education and is entitled to receive secondary education has the right to continue secondary education and to benefit from secondary education opportunities. General Upper secondary education consists of Anatolian, science and social sciences high scho- ols. Vocational and technical upper secondary education consists of vocational and technical high schools, multiprogram high schools and vo- cational education centres. In the 2020-2021 academic year, 6,318,602 stu- dents received education, and 382,109 teachers were employed in 12,972 upper secondary educa- tion institutions. Within the scope of the project of restructuring secondary education, the textbooks of students studying in secondary education continue to be provided free of charge in the 2021-2022 academic year. In addition, vocational course books of voca- tional and technical high schools have begun to be provided to students free of charge since the 2021- 2022 academic year. Those unable to continue their upper secondary education are given the opportunity to complete it through distance education services. This type of education is given in Open Education High School, Vocational Open Education High School and Vo- cational and Technical Open Education School. In the 2020-2021 academic year, 1,452,331 students received education within the scope of open high school. Special Education Compulsory education for individuals with spe- cial education needs has been arranged to inclu- de upper secondary education beginning from the pre-school period, and the individuals' right to education with special education needs is gua- Education is supported through practices carried out in schools within the scope of upper secondary education. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 601 ranteed by various international conventions and laws, particularly our Constitution. Students with vision impairment, hearing impair- ment, physical disability, mental disability, autism spectrum disorder, and special talented students are provided with education services at special education schools and institutes. Individuals with special educational needs are in- dividuals who differ significantly from the level expected from their peers in terms of individual traits, developmental characteristics and educati- onal qualifications for various reasons. In our country, it is essential for individuals with special education needs to continue their educati- on in all types and levels with their peers, either full-time in the same class or part-time in special education classes, primarily through inclusion/in- tegration. In the 2020-2021 academic year, a total of 425,816 students received education, and 16,671 teac- hers were employed in 1,517 schools/institutions/ classes providing special education. In addition, 49,194 disabled people in special education clas- ses and 319,881 in other schools received inclusive education. There are 1,249 students in kindergar- tens within 150 special education schools. Counselling and research centre Counselling and research centres (RAM) are tas- ked with relevant work and processes for educati- onal evaluation and diagnosis of individuals with special educational needs. There are a total of 277 counselling and research centres (RAM) functio- ning under this framework. Centres for science and art Our country's centres for science and art, the Re- search Development Training and Application Centres (ARGEM), and learning support rooms are used to empower gifted individuals. Centres for science and art are project-based, indepen- dent educational support facilities established to ensure that gifted students are aware of and able to maximise their talents via capacity building. In these centres, during extracurricular hours, stu- dents are provided with an enriched education programme that includes fine arts, creative wri- ting, drama, software, foreign language, leaders- hip, mechatronics, astronomy and space sciences, renewable and sustainable energy, aviation, mind and intelligence games, cognitive training, archae- ology, and urban culture, as well as other subjects on relevant fields. Three hundred forty scientific and art centres across all provinces of Türkiye edu- cate 67,375 gifted elementary, secondary, and high school-aged students. Private Education Private education institutions include all levels and types of private schools, private education courses, private driving training courses for motor vehicles, private miscellaneous courses, and priva- te education and rehabilitation centres. In recent years, both the quality and quantity of private education institutions that contribute to quality-oriented education services in the Tur- kish education system have grown. In the 2012- 2013 academic year, the ratio of students enrolled in private schools to the total number of students in formal education was 3.31%; by the 2020-2021 academic year, this ratio had increased to 7.9% (excluding distance education). The ratio of pri- vate schools offering formal education to the total number of schools is 20.1%. During the academic year 2020-2021 (formal and non-formal), 3,785,654 students/trainees recei- ved education at 30,116 private institutions, and 239,448 teachers were employed. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 602 Non-Formal Education (Public and Private) Non-formal education comprises all educational activities organised alongside or outside formal education on topics of interest and need for tho- se who have never entered the formal education system, who are enrolled in any level of the formal education system, or who have graduated from one of these levels. There are 3,811 non-formal education course prog- rammes organised under 73 branches, of which 1,040 are general, and 2,771 are vocational and technical. As of the completion of the academic year 2020-2021, 9,250,777 individuals attended non-formal education courses. Besides, 92,742 educators provided training at 18,092 institutions. Public Education There are 998 public education centres, 24 tech- nical institutes, 1,022 non-formal education ins- titutions, and five distance education schools of varying types and levels in at least one district in each of Türkiye's 81 provinces. Public education continues through public educa- tion centres' free of charge courses on vocational, social, communal, economic, sports and cultural topics tailored to each citizen's interests, desires, abilities and expectations in provinces, districts and villages, as well as through prisons and de- tention houses, rehabilitation centres, hospitals, workplaces belonging to public and private insti- tutions, buildings belonging to formal education institutions and wherever else there is a need. Technical institutes, which are among our Mi- nistry's most deeply rooted educational insti- tutions, explore cultural values and traditional arts, develop them without compromising their distinctive qualities, archive and pass them on to future generations, and ensure their promotion on In public education centres, courses are offered to individuals of varying ages and levels of education OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 603 national and international platforms. In technical institutes that encompass sections on education, research, design and production, promotion and marketing, course and equivalency programmes are established for all types of horizontal and verti- cal transitions, in addition to predominantly artis- tic training and production. The objective of distance education schools is to provide formal-level distance education to indivi- duals who have reached the age restriction for for- mal education and who are unable to continue the- ir formal education owing to disability, detention, disease, or lack of schools in their area. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 604 T ürkiye Maarif Foundation (TMF) was formed in accor- dance with Law No. 6721, which the Grand National Assemb- ly of Türkiye enacted on June 17, 2016. TMF, which is not related to or affiliated with any public institution in the state organisation, is an entity with autonomous gover- nance. The foundation's income comprises govern- mental budget allocations, profits from educational activities, and donations. There are three main bodies within the TMF. The Board of Trustees consists of twelve members, se- ven appointed by the President of Türkiye and five appointed by the relevant institutions and boards. Two of the five appointed members are from the Ministry of National Education, while the remai- ning three are from the Ministry of Foreign Affa- irs, the Ministry of Treasury and Finance, and the Council of Higher Education. The Board of Truste- es appoints seven individuals, including the presi- dent, to the TMF's executive body. The TMF Board of Supervisors consists of five members, including representatives from the Ministry of National Education and the Mi- nistry of Treasury and Finance. In addition to these primary bodies, TMF operations are carried out by the departments within the he- adquarters, as well as the country representatives in the countries where educational activities take place. Article 1 of Law No. 6721 specifies the TMF's purpo- ses as follows; to award scholarships in all educati- on levels from pre-school to university education, to open facilities such as educational institutions and dormitories, to train educators to be assigned to these institutions, including domestic ones, to conduct scientific research, and to carry out rese- arch and development initiatives, to publish acade- mic works and develop methods, and to conduct ot- her educational activities which are in accordance EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF TÜRKİYE MAARİF FOUNDATION OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 606 with the laws and regulations of that country in whi- ch these institutions operate in order to service and improve formal and non-formal education by taking common human values and knowledge as a basis. TMF performs its operations within the framework of its vision, "to become a pioneering educational institution nurturing pure-minded people who use knowledge for the peace and welfare of humanity," and its mission, "to carry out comprehensive educa- tional activities throughout the world based on the common values of humanity and Anatolian traditi- on of wisdom." The mission and vision of TMF, which provides formal and non-formal education services abroad based on the tradition of Anatolian wisdom and hu- manity's common knowledge and values on behalf of the Republic of Türkiye, are in line with the goal of "quality education for sustainable development" sta- ted in the UN Vision 2030 Paper and the objectives outlined in the OECD's position paper "The Future of Education and Skills: Education 2030" on the acqui- sition of 21st-century skills. As of May 2022, TMF has established formal relati- ons with 104 nations worldwide and operates in 67 countries through 55 representative offices. In 49 of these 67 nations, it has founded educational institu- tions that provide formal and non-formal education. Four hundred five of these educational institutions provide pre-school, primary, and secondary educa- tion (K-12), one of which is a university, whilst 21 are education centres that provide non-formal educati- on. Diplomatic discussions between TMF and rela- ted nations resulted in the closure of a total of 234 out of 427 FETO-affiliated educational institutions, which were subsequently handed to the foundati- on's responsibility. TÜRKİYE MAARIF FOUNDATION IN THE WORLD Total Countries Officially Contacted Countries with Educational Institutions and Facilities Number of Protocols Concluded Countries of Operation Education Institution Dormitory Students OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 607 TMF's Scope of Activities Law No. 6721 establishes the following four broad categories regarding the TMF's field of activity: -- Education and Training: TMF engages in both formal and non-formal education activities. Preschool, primary and secondary education, as well as higher education institutions are all offered as part of formal education. On the ot- her hand, non-traditional educational opportu- nities that it offers include courses, study cent- res, and cultural and educational centres. -- Broadcasting and Programme Development: TMF conducts scientific research and R&D stu- dies on educational techniques and methods, as well as curriculum development, generates training programmes and material, and pub- lishes scholarly publications for educational purposes. TMF has developed the "Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language Program and its Curriculum" and continues to prepare for In- ternational Maarif (IM), the foundation's own unique education and accreditation program- me. -- Support for Education: TMF supports the edu- cational activities conducted at the educational institutions it has established overseas with additional units like libraries, laboratories, art facilities, and sports facilities. Additionally, it provides educational materials to students in need. -- Scholarship and Housing: TMF awards its outs- tanding students with scholarships. It also pro- vides dormitories, hostels, and lodgings to meet the housing needs of its students and staff. TMF Educational Institutions In accordance with the Maarif Foundation Law No. 6721, Türkiye Maarif Foundation conducts formal and non-formal education activities. TMF engages in formal education via Maarif Schools and its uni- versity and non-formal education with Education Centres. TMF Educational Institutions are compri- sed of Maarif Schools, its university, and its educa- tion centres. Maarif Schools are fee-paying international schools with a valid national and international education licence, which TMF has established in accordance OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 608 with an international agreement with the country where it operates abroad. Citizens of the relevant country and other nations, as well as Turks residing abroad, are able to receive an education at Maarif Schools. Students must pass the Entrance Exam to Maarif (MAGIS) conducted by TMF to be eligible for enrolment in Maarif Schools in many nations. During the curriculum planning phase of Maarif Schools, negotiations take place with the relevant country's Ministry of Education. Education in Ma- arif schools is primarily based on the national curri- culum of the country in which it operates; however, international programmes such as International Baccalaureate (IB) or Cambridge may also be used with the approval of the respective country's Mi- nistry of Education. In addition, our foundation focuses on R&D and develops its own international curriculum and accreditation programme under the title "International Maarif" (IM). Furthermore, TMF makes updates, partial revisions, and additi- ons to local and international programmes, and all programmes incorporate Turkish lessons. Local, international, and IM programmes offered at Maarif schools are founded on five pillars: modern sciences, social sciences, information technologies, language proficiency, and local cultures and values. All international school curricula require the first three of these five foundations. In contrast to other international schools, TMF is distinguished by its fourth and fifth pillars. Maarif Schools place great importance on language proficiency, and students are expected to master their native language, Tur- kish, and an additional foreign language. First of all, Maarif students must acquire a very high level of proficiency in their native language, thus, assisting in the development of generations capable of cont- ributing to their own nation without abandoning their national values. Additionally, Maarif students increase their proficiency in Turkish and a foreign language. The fifth pillar, lessons on local culture and values, are taught by local educators at Maarif Schools. Similar to the focus placed on the deve- lopment of native-language proficiency, lessons on local culture and values are regarded as vital to the children's development at Maarif Schools. There- fore, it is intended to protect the right of students to be educated in accordance with the values of the country in which they live. In Maarif Schools, education proceeded uninter- rupted during the COVID-19 pandemic. Since its foundation, TMF has made substantial investments in the infrastructure of education and training sys- tems, and its ability and expertise with distance education and LMS programmes are extensive. Using the infrastructure of the nations in which it operates, TMF offered distance education services in Maarif Schools with 13 different apps and 500 virtual classrooms throughout the pandemic. In many nations, TMF also offered funding for online education at the request of the Ministry of Educa- tion. For instance, TMF introduced distance educa- tion in Afghanistan's Maarif schools and provided substantial help to the Ministry of Education of Af- ghanistan with approximately 3,000 video lessons. In Maarif Schools, teaching Turkish is a highly em- phasised matter. Using Yunus Emre Institute's Tur- kish teaching sets in the initial years of Maarif Scho- ols, the foundation also developed its own Turkish OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 609 education programme and the "Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language Programme and its Curricu- lum." In this programme, which was designed to be implemented from pre-school through the senior year of high school, Turkish teaching has been de- signed in accordance with international language standards, and it is aimed that every Maarif Scho- ol student graduates with at least B2 level Turkish skills. This programme, for which a programme gu- ide and learning models have been developed, has been authorised by the Ministry of National Edu- cation Board of Education and is now a recognised programme in national and international language teaching practises. Using the "E-Maarif System" that it has developed, Türkiye Maarif Foundation monitors the Maarif educational institutions located around the globe. With the implementation of the E-Maarif System in March 2018 to manage the information and pro- cesses of Maarif educational institutions and Maa- rif students, it is now possible to report and track student numbers, student financial information, and various data on the student/school axis from a single system. Using TMF's Alumni Tracking System, students who graduate from Maarif Schools are guided in their career planning following graduation. TMF of- fers its students advice and guidance as they pursue higher education as well as start their careers. With this assistance method and the "Maarif Agency" established by TMF, the number of Maarif School graduates who opted for higher education in Türki- ye has exceeded three thousand. Through the edu- cation fairs it conducts abroad, the Maarif Agency seeks to ensure that not only graduates of Maarif Schools but also international students prefer Tür- kiye for higher education. Of the 405 Maarif Schools opened by TMF in 49 countries as of May 2022, 97 are pre-schools, 97 are primary schools, 103 are secondary schools, and 108 are high schools. Regarding higher education, TMF currently has a university. TMF has started offering higher educa- tion services at the University of New York Tirana, the first private university in Albania, beginning with the 2018-2019 academic year. In the faculties and institutes of the University's Law and Social Sciences, Economics and Business Administration, Engineering, and Architecture, 750 undergradua- te and graduate students are enrolled. In addition, the Balkan Research Centre was formed within the University last year. Regarding higher education, TMF has also establis- hed "Turkish Studies Centres" on university cam- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 610 puses through collaboration agreements with the most prestigious universities in certain countries. These centres seek to support international acade- mic studies and conduct comparative and interdis- ciplinary research on Türkiye, encourage research in political, social, economic, historical, and cultu- ral fields, act as a bridge between Türkiye and other countries in higher education, develop joint proje- cts, conduct academic exchange programmes, and encourage and contribute to Türkiye's strategy for internationalising its education system. In 2021, our foundation established Centres for Turkish Studies at the National University of Colombia, the Univer- sity of Yaoundé II in Cameroon, and the University of Felix Houphouet-Boigny in Ivory Coast in order to further these objectives. In these centres, cour- ses like the Turkish language, Turkish history, and Turkish foreign policy are offered as electives for credit in the relevant undergraduate and graduate programmes. It is also envisioned that scholarly publications and international conferences on Tür- kiye and the relevant countries would be produced and held at these centres. Our foundation allocates Turkish academic members to these centres in ac- cordance with the collaboration agreements it has signed with universities in Türkiye. In its Education Centres, Türkiye Maarif Founda- tion conducts non-formal education programmes in addition to formal education. In twelve nations, twenty-one Education Centres are active as of May 2022. Across our TMF Education Centres, activities such as evening schools, weekend courses, univer- sity preparation courses, Turkish language lear- ning, cultural events, and art workshops are offered for our citizens and communities of Turkish des- cent in Europe. Türkiye Maarif Foundation aims to raise new ge- nerations who are able to follow global develop- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 611 ments, have comprehensive knowledge and a firm stance in the face of global challenges, have learned and internalised their national values, are aware of their local culture and traditions, have learned Türkiye and Turkish from credible resources, and are pro-Türkiye. In its sixth year, TMF has become Türkiye's gateway to the world and a competitor among the world's leading international educati- onal institutions due to this aim. Within this brief period, our foundation's emphasis on R&D has enabled us to effectively compete with internatio- nal schools that are fifty or even one hundred years old. With the Istanbul Education Summit, a series of international conferences was initiated with the intention of following current debates in the field of international education, addressing issues such as new trends in education, the future of education, international curriculum, digitalisation in educati- on, education and social justice, in addition to the challenging processes of curriculum planning and developing an international accreditation program- me. The Summit, which took place for the first time in November 2021, is scheduled to occur annually thereafter. Furthermore, International Maarif Jour- nal, published quarterly, brings forth the develop- ments and discussions in the field of international education on the agenda in national and internati- onal academia. With these R&D initiatives, interna- tional conferences, and publications, TMF aspires to increase the quality of education in Educational Institutions on a daily basis. TMF closely monitors the advancements in worldwide education. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 612 T he higher education system in Türkiye enab- les high school graduates to continue their studies and obtain vocational and academic skills at the university level. The Student Selection and Placement Centre of Türkiye (ÖSYM) accepts students to associate and undergraduate program- mes offered by higher education institutions based on the results of annual examinations. There are 208 higher education institutions in Tür- kiye as of the 2021-2022 academic year, of which 129 are state universities, 75 are foundation universi- ties, and 4 are independent foundation vocational schools of higher education. The overall number of students enrolled in higher education, including distance education, during the academic year 2021- 2022 is 8,296,959, while the total number of educa- tors is 184,702. Higher Education This education system provides associate, undergraduate, and postgraduate education based on secondary education and aspires to equip personnel with the greatest quality of human resources for scientific research. Education is provided in higher education at the associate, undergraduate, and postgraduate levels. Higher Education Institutions Included are universities and their affiliated faculties, colleges, conservatories, vocational schools of higher education, institutes and application-research centres, as well as vocational schools of higher education established by foundations, so long as they are not affiliated with a university or high technology institute and are not for profit. Associate Degree This is the degree granted following the completion of secondary education and at least four semesters of a programme. This programme includes distance education opportunities and strives to train quality human resources for certain professions. Undergraduate (Bachelors) It is a degree gained after secondary education by completing eight semesters of study. Dentistry, veterinary medicine, and pharmacy each require ten semesters, while medicine requires twelve. All four of these certifications are equal to a master's degree. Postgraduate It covers specialisation training and academic rese- HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN TÜRKIYE OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 614 arch in master's and doctorate, arts, medical, den- tal, pharmacy, and veterinary medicine. It is divided into the following stages according to procedures and principles, as well as education durations: Master's It is a four-semester programme that awards deg- rees in Social Sciences and Physical Sciences upon completion of an undergraduate degree. There are two varieties, with and without thesis. While mas- ter's programmes with a thesis emphasise the abi- lity to access, compile, interpret, and evaluate infor- mation using scientific research methods, master's programmes without a thesis emphasise the more effective application of existing knowledge in prac- tice by equipping students with professional know- how. The completion of a programme with a thesis requires the submission of a curriculum totalling at least 120 credits, followed by a thesis; programmes without theses require the completion of a curricu- lum of 90 credits and a term project. Doctoral (PhD) It is a higher education programme offered after completing an undergraduate or master's degree and attempts to equip students with the abilities required to conduct independent research, assess scientific problems and data from a broad and in-depth viewpoint, analyse, and arrive at a new sy- nthesis. It usually consists of eight semesters. After completing a curriculum of 180-240 credits, a stu- dent must pass a proficiency exam and verbally de- fend their dissertation before the thesis committee in order to get a PhD. Proficiency in Art It is a doctoral-equivalent higher education deg- ree that, after completing a bachelor's or master's degree, strives to develop creativity and excellent practice in music and performing arts through the creation of an original piece of art. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 615 Specialisation Programmes (Specialisation in Me- dicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy and Veterinary Medi- cine) It is a higher education degree corresponding to a PhD, organised by the relevant institution, conduc- ted in accordance with established guidelines, and designed to provide specialised skills and compe- tency in related subjects. Institutions of Higher Education and Academic Units University It is a higher education institution composed of faculties, institutes, academies, and similar institutions and units that engage in high-level education, training, scientific research, publication, and consultancy with scientific autonomy and public legal personality. Faculty (College) It is a division conducting higher education, scholarly research and publication. Various units may be connected to it. Institute It is a higher education institution that provides postgraduate education, education and training, scientific research, and practice in multiple fields at universities and faculties. Institutes offer master's, doctoral, and proficiency degrees in the arts. Vocational School It is a higher education institution that focuses on vocational education and training. Conservatory It is an institution of higher education that trains artists in music and performing arts. Application and Research Centre It is a higher education institution that provides education, practice, and research for the application needs of many disciplines, as well as preparation and support activities for particular professions in order to assist education and training in higher education institutions. Council of Higher Education (CoHe) The Council of Higher Education (CoHe) was established on November 6, 1981, under Law No. 2547 on Higher Education. With this law, a process of academic, institutional, and administrative reorganisation in higher education has begun, and all higher education institutions in our country have been grouped under the umbrella of CoHe. Academies became universities, educational institutions became faculties of education, and conservatories and vocational schools were linked to universities. The tasks and authorities of higher education institutions have been transferred to the CoHe, a public legal personality, under Articles 130 and 131 of the Constitution. CoHe primarily functions as an entity in charge of higher education strategic planning and coordination among OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 616 universities and higher education institutions at the point of planning and reconciliation. The purpose of CoHe, as stipulated by the Higher Education Law, is to determine the higher education system's objectives and principles, as well as the organisation, functioning, duties, authorities, and responsibilities of higher education institutions and their superior organisations, as well as to govern the pertinent principles on education and training, research, publication, teaching staff, students, and other personnel in unity. CoHe develops short, and long-term plans for the establishment and development of higher education institutions, trains academic staff in Türkiye and abroad, follows up on these practices, and ensures cooperation and coordination among higher education institutions. CoHe is an autonomous institution with a public legal personality within the framework of the duties and authorities delegated to it by the law that governs all higher education and directs the efforts of higher education institutions. It is comprised of a total of 21 members, 14 of whom are appointed by the President, and seven of whom are elected by the Inter-University Council and appointed by the President. The President of Türkiye selects a President among the Board members for a four-year term. The President, who is responsible for ensuring that the decisions of the Council of Higher Education's General Board and the Executive Board are carried out in accordance with the provisions of law and regulation, represents the Board and appoints academic staff and other individuals whose selection is delegated to the Board. The Executive Board is made up of nine members, including the President. Some of the Current Programmes and Projects of the Council of Higher Education CoHe Scholarship (Undergraduate) Since the 2016-2017 academic year, the scholarship has been awarded to students who rank in the top three and enrol in undergraduate programmes at state universities, as determined by the Council of Higher Education by prioritising fields important for the country's economic and social development and welfare. 100/2000 CoHe PhD Scholarship The 100/2000 CoHe PhD Scholarship Program was launched in the spring semester of the 2016-2017 academic year in order to meet the need for human resources in the priority areas. As part of the prog- ramme, students enrolled in doctoral programmes at state universities are supported in 100 priority thematic areas determined/revised by our Presi- dency in each call period. Scholarships for International Students The CoHe Scholarship for International Students covers undergraduate and graduate tuition fees, Turkish language education expenses, general he- alth insurance premiums, and dormitory fees for international students who come from countries OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 617 where CoHe has signed a cooperation protocol and/ or memorandum of understanding and are placed in state higher education institutions. CoHe Scholarship for Turkology It is a scholarship programme for undergraduate students studying Turkish Language and Literatu- re, Turkology, and Turkish Language programmes in countries and higher education institutions abro- ad determined by the CoHe, and who are citizens of the country where they are located, primarily in countries with which the CoHe has signed a coope- ration agreement and/or memorandum of unders- tanding. Mission Differentiation and Specialisation Prog- ramme Within the scope of this programme, the Differen- tiation and Specialisation Aimed at Regional Deve- lopment Programme was initiated, which aims to enable universities established in 2006 and later to play an active role in regional development through the activities they will carry out in their provinces/ regions. The Research Universities Programme, which is the second step of mission differentiation and specialisation efforts, aims that deep-rooted universities gain a more competitive structure in the global sense by differentiating their missions in the research focus. Barrier-free University Awards Within the scope of inspiring initiatives and proje- cts for the resolution of the educational, social, and cultural problems of the students with disabilities, as well as their health and care-related problems, The Barrier-free University Awards, which were gi- ven for the first time in 2018 by the Presidency of the CoHe, encouraged universities to become bar- rier-free in physical areas, education, and socio-cul- tural activities, and most of the universities gave impetus to their efforts by establishing committees on the issue. Excellence Awards In accordance with the mission of higher educati- on, CoHe gives Excellence Awards in the Individual, Institutional, and Private Fields to encourage types of original, innovative, and superior scientific rese- arch and studies, as well as scientific research and development projects that are supported and/or carried out. Foreign Language Scientific Article Writing Prog- ramme for Young PhD Researchers This programme aims to improve young scientists' academic writing skills in a foreign language in or- der to improve their ability to submit articles in a fo- reign language in international journals and make their scientific research in Türkiye more visible at the international level. Project on Big Data in Higher Education The Big Data Project was initiated in May 2022 with the intention of accelerating Turkish Higher Education significantly on a national and interna- tional scale. Selected as pilot universities for the project were a total of eight universities, including ITU, METU, Atatürk University, İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Sabancı University, Fırat University, Sa- karya University, and Trabzon University. The aim is to implement in the aforementioned universities the advanced stages of the Digital Transformation Project put into effect in Türkiye. Project on Academic Staff Mobility It was initiated by the Council of Higher Education (CoHe) with the primary goal of providing acade- mic staff support in universities established after 2006, increasing academic staff mobility between universities, and bringing students together with faculty members from various universities. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 618 YLSY (Selection and Placement of Students to be Sent Abroad for Graduate Studies) YLSY is an abroad graduate (master's and doctoral) education scholarship programme carried out by our Ministry to meet the country's demand for qua- lified human resources. In addition to the scholarship provided by the Mi- nistry of National Education to our students, school payments, health expenses, transport cost, exam fees, and stationery costs are also covered. The programme essentially covers the processes of sending students abroad for postgraduate educa- tion on behalf of public institutions and organisa- tions in fields in which our country has a need, as well as the employment of students who complete their education in higher education institutions and public institutions for twice the amount of time spent abroad on scholarship. There are currently 4,160 students enrolled in this programme on behalf of 125 universities and 39 dif- ferent public institutions in 51 countries. Overseas Education and Training Missions Measures are taken to protect our citizens' and their children's national and cultural identities abroad, ensure that they are in harmony with the society in which they live, and raise their educational level; schools are opened in countries deemed necessary based on the needs of our citizens abroad; Turkish learning centres are opened for schools abroad in order to plan, implement, and support social and cultural activities, and to spread Turkish and Tur- kish culture. There are 63 schools and two Turkish Education and Training Centres in 14 countries abroad as of the 2021-2022 academic year. Our schools/instituti- ons have a total of 8,437 students/trainees. We have 1,405 teachers in 51 countries working on Turkish and Turkish Culture Courses in countries where we have schools and institutions and in countries where we do not have schools/institutions, and 111 lecturers in the Chairs of Turkology of universities abroad. EDUCATION ABROAD OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 620 Educational Partnerships between the Inter- national Education Organisation and Turkic Republics For the purposes of safeguarding, promoting, and disseminating Turkish culture abroad, the Ministry of National Education has set up international or- ganisations to provide education and training ser- vices. The Ministry of National Education has 60 Educa- tion Counsellors and 31 Education Attachés in 63 countries, and it currently provides services with 46 Education Consultants and 29 Education Atta- chés in 49 countries, all with the goal of providing education and training services to Turkish citizens living abroad and promoting and protecting Tur- kish culture abroad. In collaboration with the Ministry of National Edu- cation, 228 teachers from various fields continue to work in educational institutions established in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Romania, and Moldova. International Collaboration Educational efforts of the United Nations (UN), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cul- tural Organisation (UNESCO), Council of Europe (EC), Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Economic Cooperation Or- ganization (ECO), Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organisation (BSEC), Organisation of Islamic Coo- peration (OIC), World Bank, Turkic Council, Inter- national Association for the Evaluation of Educati- onal Achievement (IEA), and European Union are closely monitored. ASPnet Schools' and UNESCO Clubs' programmes are implemented in schools. The Ministry of National Education is an active member of the OECD's Educational Policy Com- mittee (EDPC), which is part of the Directorate for Education and Skills, the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI), the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Tea- ching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), and Indicators International Education Systems (INES). The Ministry of National Education is also represented in the Turkish Delegation to the EDPC, the CERI Board of Directors, the PISA Board of Dire- ctors, and the TALIS Board of Directors. The G20 is another platform where educational practices are shared. With the addition of education to the G20 agenda during the Presidency of Argen- tina in 2018, Türkiye was included in the education working groups established within the G20, and our practices in the field of education were shared with other countries through meetings and docu- ments produced within the agendas of the educati- on working groups. Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO) Within the ECO, there are three specialised orga- nisations: The Culture Institute (Iran/Tehran), the Science Foundation (Pakistan/Islamabad), and the Educational Institute (Türkiye/Ankara). ECO Educational Institute (ECOEI) Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyr- gyzstan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan, along with our country, signed the Institute Founding Document, the most important legal document of the ECO Educational Institute. Türkiye, Afghanistan, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan, have completed the document's approval process. The Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO) Education Institute is based in Ankara, and the Board of Trustees is the Institute's highest poli- cy-making and decision-making body. The Board of Trustees of the ECO Education Institute is made up of the Institute's President, the ECO's Secretary OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 621 General, and of the member countries' Ministers of Education. In 2017, the Board of Trustees met in Istanbul. Due to the pandemic, our country held the Board of Trustees Meeting online on August 12, 2020. On July 23, 2020, the "Host Country Agreement on Rights, Privileges, and Immunities of ECOEI," whi- ch was prepared to regulate the mutual duties and responsibilities of our country and the ECO Edu- cation Institute as the host country regarding the Institute's institutionalisation process, and the "The Law on Approval of the Host Country Agreement on the Rights, Privileges, and Immunities of the ECOIE between the Economic Cooperation Organi- sation Education Institute (ECOIE) and the Gover- nment of the Republic of Türkiye was promulgated in the Official Gazette numbered on April 1, 2022. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 622 W ith an increase in the number of universi- ties, research centres, and academics, as well as internationalisation, our country has recently seen a significant change in the field of higher education. The number of international students hosted has increased significantly in line with the global rise in international student mobi- lity. Türkiye's higher education internationalisation ef- forts are fundamentally based on four principles: • Academic growth and engagement • Social and cultural interaction • Economic development and solidarity • Enhancement of political and diplomatic rela- tions Our country's scholarship opportunities are one of the most significant contributors to the internatio- nalisation of higher education. In this context, the first systematic scholarship programme, "Great Stu- dent Project," which was initiated for international students in 1992, was restructured by Presidency for Turks Abroad and Related Communities (YTB) to meet the needs of the time and the "Türkiye Scho- larships" programme was implemented with a de- cision dated January 11, 2012, by the International Students Evaluation Board. Long-term "Undergraduate Scholarship Program" and "Graduate Scholarship Programme" are offered by Türkiye Scholarships. Short-term programmes include "Success," and "Research," Scholarships, as well as "Turkish Communication Program for Public Officials and Academics (KATİP)". "Success Scholarship" was created to support successful and underprivileged international students studying at Turkish universities through their own means; "Research Scholarship," to fund the relevant the- ses or research of international doctoral students accepted to a university in our country; "KATİP," to support international public officials and academi- cs who wish to learn Turkish. In addition to short- term programmes, "Joint Scholarship Programs" are run in collaboration with other international organisations and institutions. MOBILITY OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 624 Within the first ten years of the programme's rea- lisation, more than one million applications from more than 170 countries have been submitted to all scholarship programmes within the scope of Türki- ye Scholarships. International students who receive Türkiye Scholarships are provided with "direct uni- versity enrolment, university fees, monthly scho- larships, Turkish language education, accommo- dation, general health insurance, round-trip flight tickets, and free participation in academic, social, and cultural programmes." Applications for Türki- ye Scholarships can be submitted online in eight languages; candidates are evaluated based on the- ir academic success, extracurricular activities, and other professional qualifications, as well as their eligibility with the programme's criteria for which they are applying and their academic and social accomplishments. The application evaluation and selection procedure consist of four steps: "pre-exa- mination, expert evaluation, interview, and final decision stage." The substantial contribution to international stu- dent mobility given by the Türkiye Scholarships programme is primarily founded on the following values: • A merit-based scholarship strategy is emplo- yed by placing objective criteria at the core for all applicants. • The major goal is to promote cultural, social, and economic engagement at both the indivi- dual and societal levels. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 625 • It aims to help scholarship recipient students develop their capacities and skills so that they may contribute to the development of their home countries. • Graduates who have completed their studies and returned to their home countries are anti- cipated to help further enhance the academic, cultural, social, political, and economic ties between their home countries and Türkiye. • Scholarship recipients, particularly those at the graduate level, are expected to contribute to the world of science and literature through their works and studies. • In addition, students who are denied the op- portunity to continue their studies in the least developed countries or countries experiencing a humanitarian crisis are given scholarships based on merit. It was decided to establish the "International Stu- dents' Academy" in collaboration with non-go- vernmental organisations in order to contribute to the strengthening of Türkiye Scholarship students who continue their education in our country, to support their academic and non-area studies, and to provide them with opportunities to interact with authors, intellectuals, and artists, particularly academics in their fields of educa- tion. Thousands of scholarship students have participated in the academy, which is categorised into three sections: "Introductory Seminars," "Specialised Workshops," and "Turkish Arts and Sports." The fact that every student who obtains a scho- larship through the Türkiye Scholarships prog- ramme receives free Turkish education for a year is viewed as a significant step toward the growth of Turkish as an academic and scientific langua- ge. It is noteworthy that students who have dis- tinguishedly achieved academic success in their home countries are brought into Turkish higher education following a rigorous evaluation, as well as Turkish Scholarship Students' multifaceted contribution to academic literature, cultural sur- rounds, and social life. YOUTH AND SPORTS -- YOUTH -- PUBLIC SERVICES FOR YOUTH -- SPORTS DIPLOMACY: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS -- SPORTS SERVICES - ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE INTERNATIONAL SPORTS COMMUNITY OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 628 T wenty-three per cent of Türkiye's population is comprised of young people (aged 15 to 29 years). In our country, where there are approximately 20 million young people, efforts are made in collaboration with relevant foundations, associations, national and international institutions, organisations, and universities in order to identify the interests, ne- eds, wishes, and problems of young people and to develop and implement effective policies for them. The following are projects and programmes for youth. Youth Volunteering Türkiye, which attaches special importance to vo- lunteering for the sustainable development of our country and has the largest and most energetic youth population in Europe with about 20 million young people, instils its strong philanthropy and foundation culture in its youth. Numerous institu- tions and organisations have exerted considerable effort on this matter. Our Republic's Eleventh De- velopment Plan (2019-2023) includes significant policies regarding goals for volunte- ering, particularly youth vo- lunteering. Under Presidential Decree No. 1 on Presidential Organisation, the Ministry of Youth and Sports was responsible for "carrying out activities that increase youth awareness on volunteering and encourage them to volunteer" following the tran- sition to the new government system. This legal basis accelerated the efforts on volunteering, and "2019 Volunteering Year" was declared nationwide to launch a volunteering campaign with the par- ticipation of all stakeholders. 2019 Volunteering Year Strategy Document was published, and seve- ral "Cooperation Protocols in the Field of Volun- teering" were signed with the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Council of Higher Education (CoHE), Universities, the Mi- nistry of Family and Social Services, the Union of Municipalities of Türkiye, and several municipa- lities in accordance with the document. In this regard, the Volunteering Action Plan, which was developed and implemented with the cooperati- YOUTH OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 630 on of 12 institutions and organisations represen- ted by the High Council for Combating Addiction, was designed to be revised annually and serve as a guide for volunteering efforts. In cooperation with the Council of Higher Education, universi- ties have begun providing "Volunteering Studies" as an elective course starting from the 2020-2021 academic year. Under the notion that volunteering is one of the most important tools for the personal, social, and professional development of young people, the Ministry of Youth and Sports established the "Gö- nüllüyüzBİZ Platform (We are the Volunteers)" in 2015, and the platform began operating via the website www.gonulluyuzbiz.gov.tr. With the slo- gan "Set your heart on volunteering" and hund- reds of volunteer opportunities in six categories, the platform unites institutions and organisations seeking volunteers and those wishing to volunte- er in an effort to foster the culture of volunteering throughout the country. As of May 2022, GönüllüyüzBiz Platform has 286,201 volunteers, 3,045 corporate members, and 29,000 announcements posted. This system records young people's participation in volunteer activities and enables them to obtain re- ferences for future job and scholarship applications. Thus, on the one hand, young people improve their personal and social skills through volunteering wit- hout expecting anything in return, and on the other, they acquire valuable references for their future ca- reer plans. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 631 Youth Projects Support Programme (GPDP) The Youth Projects Support Programme provides project support to Youth Groups, Youth Commu- nities, and Real and Legal Entities. Between 2012 and 2022, a total of 331,311,968 Turkish liras were allocated to support 5,114 projects under the topics "Volunteering", "Personal Development", "Physical Activity", "Exercise and Sports, Environment", "Ani- mal Protection", "Healthy Life and Sports", "Comba- ting Addiction", "Culture and Art", "Innovative Idea", "Social Cohesion", "Book Coffee", and "Mobile Youth Centre." Life Skills Training Module Project "Life Skills Education Module Project," which was developed in order to increase the reading, compre- hension and thinking skills and leadership abilities of young people, to encourage activities that sup- port the physical, social, artistic, sportive, cognitive and cultural development of young people in order to use their free time effectively and efficiently, and implement programmes that will contribute to the- ir personal and social development and career plan- ning, aims to ensure that the youth have the quali- fications necessary for current day and age so that they can be happy, successful, effective, and produ- ctive in all aspects of life. As part of the "Life Skills Training Module Project", which was implemented with the understanding that young people who know themselves well, have developed interpersonal communication skills, have obtained the necessary qualifications for pro- fessional life, and have universal values will power- fully carry our country into the future, the life skil- ls required by the 21st century were analysed and categorised under ten headings, and it was aimed to equip young people with these skills through a 120-hour programme via distance education, fa- ce-to-face education, applied training or other met- hods, according to the characteristics of the skills. With 100 trainers per year and 10 hours of volunteer service per youth/trainee, the objective is to reach 500 thousand young people. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 632 A s a Ministry for a youth pioneer of change and development, the primary objectives of the Ministry of Youth and Sports are to bring the youth and sports of our country to a level that is compatible with current conditions, prepa- red for future challenges, sensitive to local values, and respectful of universal culture and to ensure that Türkiye is successfully represented in the fiel- ds of youth and sports at the international level. In this regard, numerous activities are conducted for youth. Youth centres are the centres that organise various activities to assist young people in making the most of their free time, directing them towards social, cul- tural, artistic, scientific, and sports activities, cont- ributing to their development, providing guidance and counselling, raising awareness against all ty- pes of harmful habits and addictions, and carrying out preventative and protective activities. As of the end of 2021, 397 youth centres in 81 provinces have 2,665,329 members. Youth Centre activities are primarily realised under Youth Centres Academy and Youth Centres Clubs. Youth Centres Academy consists of practical work- shops where theoretical training is given with a specific curriculum, and these workshops are Per- sonal Development Workshop, Innovation Works- hop, Fine Arts Workshop, Virtues Workshop, Social Sciences Workshop, Language Training Workshop, Religious Sciences Workshop, Healthy Life and Sports Workshop. Youth Centres Clubs are civil initiative areas whe- re young people organise and carry out all kinds of activities (theatres, concerts, shows, exhibitions, tournaments, festivals, etc.), and these clubs are So- cial and Cultural Activities Club/Merkezim Her Yer- de (Youth Centres Everywhere) project, Fine Arts Club, Science and Technology Club, Healthy Life and Sports Club, Volunteering Club. PUBLIC SERVICES FOR YOUTH OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 634 These offices, affiliated with a Youth Centre, are established in schools, universities, dorms, sports halls, and neighbourhoods based on specific requ- irements in order to organise activities and incre- ase services in locations where young people are present. Youth Offices were first formed in January 2019. As of the end of 2021, • The number of University Youth Offices is 95, • The number of Dorm Youth Offices is 71, • The number of Ministry of National Education Youth Offices is 80, • The number of Neighbourhood Youth Offices is 30, • The number of Gym Youth Offices is 17, and the total number of Youth Offices is 293. • In 2021, 137 youth offices were opened. Youth camps are organisations set up to contribu- te to the development of our youth, encourage the development of self-assurance and planned living habits, and raise young people's awareness about national, moral, ethical, and human values. Young people are provided with the opportunity to deve- lop personally and interact with each other in 43 camp facilities. In 2021, 75,000 young people atten- ded our youth camps. At the discretion and directi- ve of our President, the age range of our youth cam- ps has been expanded from 12-22 to 12-25. Every year, the May 19 Commemoration of Atatürk, Youth and Sports Day, and Youth Week are celebra- ted nationwide and participated by our youth rep- resentatives from 81 provinces and the TRNC. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 635 As part of international youth activities, Internatio- nal Youth/Expert Exchanges, history and civilisati- on programmes are organised, and participation in international meetings, conferences, festivals and events is ensured. Every year, "Youth Knowledge Contests" are held to disseminate knowledge sharing among youth, instil a culture of competitiveness among youth, and raise a youth who researches, reads and lear- ns. "Youth Voice and Music Competitions", "Youth Poetry Competition", and "Youth Theatre Compe- tition" are held in order to keep music, poetry and theatre, one of our traditional branches of art since Central Asia, alive by our young people and to de- velop a platform where successful young people in this field can display their talents. In addition, "Türkiye Debate League Competitions" is held to contribute to the accurate and systematic expressi- on of our youth's feelings and thoughts, to increase their knowledge on a variety of topics ranging from sports to art, history to science and technology, and to increase the effectiveness of our youth's partici- pation in social life. Moreover, on special occasions, various events are organised with the participation of our youth. Dormitory Services As of May 5, 2022, Higher Education Student Loans and Dormitories Institution, which operates under the Ministry, offers services to university students pursuing formal education in a total of 778 dormi- tories with a bed capacity of 746,507 across 251 dist- ricts and 81 provinces in Türkiye, five of which are in the TRNC. In addition, under "Law on Amendments to Certa- in Laws and Decree Laws" published in the Official Gazette No. 30822 of July 5, 2019, the Ministry of Youth and Sports has been authorised in terms of transactions and procedures pertaining to the es- tablishment, operation, and supervision of student dorms and similar institutions, with or without me- als, by real and legal entities at the higher education level. In this regard, as of May 11, 2022, 175,129 stu- dents in 1,983 institutions provided private housing for higher education students. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 636 Education, Social, Cultural, and Sporting Acti- vities for Students Higher Education Student Loans and Dormitories Institution carries out activities in order to contri- bute to the national, moral and personal develop- ment of the students staying in the dorms, to encou- rage students to make use of their extracurricular time with educational, social, cultural, and sporting activities within the framework of lifelong learning, to ensure their participation in social responsibility and volunteering activities, and to assist them in developing a cultural and civilizational conscious- ness. The dorm directorates organise language classes, courses on Turkish-Islamic arts, handicrafts, mu- sic and visual arts, virtue education, international student projects, and professional development courses. During the academic year 2021-2022 (Sep- tember-May), a total of 87,994 young people partici- pated in courses. The dorm directorates have been organising work- shops on human and social sciences, religious stu- dies, and literature; 38,863 young people attended these workshops. During the academic year 2021-2022 (Septem- ber-May), 1,500 young people participated in the- med winter camps (September-May). A total of 15,667 young people attended the excursion and camping programmes. In order to encourage the participation of young people living in dorms in social responsibility and volunteer activities, various programmes are orga- nised. A total of 111,600 young people participated in the activities organised in the academic year 2021-2022 (September-May). Intra-dormitory, inter-dormitory and inter-provin- cial tournaments are held for students staying in dorms. A total of 30,792 young people participated in the tournaments held in the academic year 2021- 2022 (September-May). OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 637 Sports classes and ethno sports courses are avai- lable for our students living in the dorms. A total of 38,926 young people attended the courses held in the academic year 2021-2022 (September-May). Conferences against addiction are held to protect young people living in dorms from unhealthy ha- bits. Awareness conferences held in the academic year 2021-2022 (September-May) were attended by 74,263 young people. Scholarship and Student Loan Services Our Ministry, In line with Article 42 of the Constitution of the Republic of Türkiye, which states, "The State shall provide scholarships and other means of assistance to enable students of merit lacking financial means to continue their education," and the provisions of paragraph (h) of Article 184 of Presidential Decree No. 1 on Presidential Organisation, The education loans in accordance with Higher Education Student Loan and Scholarship Services Law granted to youth in higher education since 1962, and Contributions to education loans in accordance with Law No. 2547 on Higher Education granted since 1985 were terminated (due to the abolition of student contributions in 2012). Scholarships are given to youth in higher education in accordance with Law No. 5102 on Granting Scho- larship and Loan to the Higher Education Students since 2004. In addition, beginning with the 2011-2012 acade- mic year and in accordance with the provisions of Law No. 6082 and Law No. 351, students from the Republic of Türkiye who are studying abroad are granted scholarships/education loans. With the enactment of Law No. 5102 on March 6, 2004, the authority of other institutions and orga- nisations to provide scholarships and loans was revoked. The Ministry is the only entity authorised to award scholarships and loans. Thus, duplication was pre- vented, and the potential to provide more assistan- ce to a greater number of students was created. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 638 M inistry of Youth and Sports has been progressively strengthening its ties, in terms of representation and effective- ness, through increased efforts and a proactive ap- proach, with international organisations that serve as a catalyst for international partnerships in order to enhance Türkiye's effectiveness in sports diplo- macy and contribute to the country's internatio- nal image. As part of this, our Ministry is actively pursuing new paths of international collaboration and seeks to create platforms for demonstrating our country's youth and sports potential on a global scale. Türkiye participates in youth and sports me- etings as well as numerous activities of internatio- nal organisations, notably the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the World Anti-Doping Agency, the Organisation of Turkic States, and the Organi- sation of Islamic Cooperation, with the highest level of representation possible and hosts many signifi- cant international organisation activities. Mehmet Muharrem Kasapolu (PhD), Minister of Youth and Sports, was elected as a Council of Euro- pe representative to the "World Anti-Doping Agen- cy (WADA) Foundation Board" for 2022-2024. Its in- ternational meetings (Conference of Parties (COP) to the International Convention against Doping in Sport, hosted by UNESCO, meeting of the Europe- an Committee for the World Anti-Doping Agency (CAHAMA), organised under the auspices of the Council of Europe, etc.), which constitute an impor- tant agenda in the field of anti-doping, are closely followed by the National Anti-Doping Commission. The aim is to be an active decision-maker rather than a passive practitioner in global sports compe- titions and their management matters. Our Ministry maintains uninterrupted bilateral and formal contacts with Organisation of Turkic States member states (the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, and the Republic of Uzbekistan) and observer states (Hungary and Turkmenistan). Since 2016, Minis- terial Meetings in youth and sports have been held alternately and annually, during which cooperation activities from the previous year and those schedu- led for the next year are discussed. Youth-related activities with Turkic Republics, such as exchange programmes, camps, festivals, young leaders’ fo- rums, youth platforms, volunteer training, young entrepreneurs’ forums, and many others, are orga- nised annually in different countries in alphabeti- cal order. In 2022, the Multilateral Youth Exchange Program and Young Volunteers Training Program will be held for the first time in our country. In 2023, Türkiye will also host the Turkic World Youth SPORTS DIPLOMACY: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 640 Capital Program and the Second Young Entrepre- neurs Forum to honour the 100th anniversary of the foundation of our Republic and our independence. Türkiye will hold the sixth Meeting of the Youth and Sports Ministers of the Organisation of Turkic States at the end of September, on the margins of "Fourth World Nomad Games" in İznik, Bursa. Traditional sports disciplines, which reflect the culture of living together of nations, foster unity by placing kindness and tolerance at their core. As an illustration, the "World Nomad Games" were initiated in the Kyrgyz Republic with the support of the Organisation of Turkic States to shed light on the life and civilisation of the Turkic tribes and to revive the nomadic civilisation culture, and the first three Games were held beside the Lake Issyk in Cholpon-Ata, Kyrgyzstan. According to an agre- ement reached at the Sixth Summit of the Organi- sation of Turkic States on September 3, 2018, the Fourth World Nomad Games is to be hosted in İz- nik, Bursa, the Cultural Capital of the Turkic World in 2022, from September 29 to October 2, 2022. The program, which will be based on the principles of tradition, respect, solidarity, and peace, will host more than 2,000 athletes, managers, and tens of thousands of citizens from more than seventy na- tions, thereby encouraging youth and our nation to participate in traditional sports disciplines. In addition, we maintain close relations with the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and its youth and sports-related affiliates, the Islamic Co- operation Youth Forum (ICYF) in Istanbul and the Islamic Solidarity Sports Federation (ISSF) in Riya- dh. On the basis of the Cooperation Protocol signed with the ICYF in March 2019, various initiatives for the development and empowerment of the youth of the Islamic World are planned and implemented by agreeing on the Cooperation Programs annually. The International Youth Camps that we offer under the themes of volunteering and the media stand out. In addition to the ICYF, our Ministry collaborates with several institutions and organisations, inclu- ding the Organisation of Turkic States, Presidency for Turks Abroad and Related Communities, to host international youth camps on a variety of themes. As part of our 2019 Volunteering Year activities, the ICYF hosted an International Photography Contest in 2019-2020. More than three thousand (3,186) photographs were submitted by over one thousand (1,122) young people from various countries. The competition's winners were determined by a jury comprised of renowned photographers such as İz- zet Keribar, Cengiz Karlıova, Sami Türkay, Hilaneh Mahmoudi and Murat Gür. The competition's exhi- bition inauguration and award ceremony were held at the Üsküdar Science Centre in September 2020 on the margins of the OIC Youth Day Programme organised by ICYF. The fifth "Islamic Solidarity Games," the ISSF's most significant event, will be held in Konya between August 9 and 18, 2022, under the theme "Unity is Power." The ISSF Extraordinary General Assembly, held in April 2019 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, adop- ted the decision for Türkiye to host the Games. The Host Country Agreement of the Games was signed in a grand event conducted in December 2019 at the Konya Selçuklu Congress Centre, during which the games' logo was also revealed. More than 3,000 ath- letes and managers from 56 OIC member nations are anticipated to participate in the Games, which will feature 24 disciplines, including traditional and Paralympic sports. Numerous sports, artistic, and cultural activities will be organised in Konya in 2022 in an effort to promote our nation and en- hance unity and brotherhood among OIC member nations. The Ministry of Youth and Sports places a premi- um on using sports diplomacy to strengthen its ties with the Balkan countries. In addition to bilateral agreements, on the margins of the South East Euro- pe Cooperation Process (SEECP) Term Presidency covering the period from July 2020 to July 2021, the OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 641 Ministry of Youth and Sports invited the Ministers responsible for youth and sports of thirteen Balkan countries to the First Ministerial Meeting Respon- sible for Youth and Sports under the theme "Neigh- bours See Together with Sports." The meeting took place in Istanbul on June 9, 2021. On the occasion of the meeting, where a joint statement on the for- mation of common policy approaches in the sphere of youth and sports was made public, our continu- ing diplomacy with the Balkan nations was given a new impetus by creating effective communication channels. Our country adheres to the youth-related policy standards of the Council of Europe and the Euro- pean Union and participates in the development of these policies and associated initiatives. Our part- nership with the Council of Europe, which has ex- panded in recent years, particularly in sports, has produced positive outcomes for both parties. Our membership in the Enlarged Partial Agreement on Sport (EPAS) of the Council of Europe, which plays a significant role in making sports fairer, safer, and more ethical on a European scale, began on Janu- ary 1, 2020. During our membership, an excellent partnership with the Council of Europe was estab- lished in various activities, including the revision of the European Sports Charter. In our sports-related cooperation with the Council of Europe, safety and security in sports and the fight against doping take priority. Within the framework of the "Council of Europe Convention on an Integrated Safety, Secu- rity, and Service Approach at Football Matches and Other Sports Events," to which we have been a party as of July 2020, it is aimed to consolidate the prog- ress made in our country in recent years in the fight against disorder and violence in sports, in line with international standards. The active stance, we have adopted by taking part in the relevant boards and committees within the scope of this Convention, is also maintained firmly within the framework of the Anti-Doping Convention, to which we have been a signatory since March 11, 1993. The 17th Conference of Ministers Responsible for Sport of the Council of Europe will be held in Antal- ya, Türkiye, on October 25-27, 2022, hosted by our country, furthering our country's productive part- nership with the Council of Europe in the field of sports. With this Conference it is envisaged to host the Ministers of Sports from 50 European Cultural Convention member countries and the leaders of approximately 30 international sports organisa- tions. The Conference will hopefully lead to actio- nable steps in the real world that go beyond theore- tical methods to involve larger masses in sports and make sports accessible to much more people. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 642 SPORTS SERVICES Youth and Sports Facilities T he Ministry of Youth and Sports aims to establish youth and sports facilities with a high added value to enable all of our citizens to participate in sports while maximising the use of our nation's resources and achieving sustainable sports success. Our Ministry undertakes the construction of youth and sports facilities such as stadiums, swimming pools, football fields, youth centres, sports halls, athletic tracks, etc., as well as the maintenance, re- pair, and modernisation of existing facilities throu- ghout the country, without compromising quality standards, and also constructs facilities to be used by various international sports organisations. Taking into account the population density, climate, and demographic structure, as well as the interests, wishes, and needs of the people in the region, the sports potential of the region (Active sports clubs and branches), and the social-cultural needs, the primary objective of 24/7 in service facilities is to create neighbourhood-based facilities in line with the needs of the region, ensure easy access to the facilities by all segments of the society, and provide benefit to more people. Prior to 2002, there were 1,575 youth and sports faci- lities in our country; however, a great breakthrough in the last two decades has resulted in the establish- ment of 2,552 facilities, bringing the total number of youth and sports facilities to 4,127 since 2002. Policies adopted during the establishment of faci- lities have contributed significantly to promoting sports at the grassroots level and to the continuan- ce of our country's worldwide sports achievements. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 644 Athlete Training Centres Shooting, athletics, badminton, boxing, gymnas- tics, mountaineering, fencing, wrestling, weight- lifting, judo, canoe, skiing, rowing, tennis, sailing, and swimming have all continued to be practised at Athlete Training Centres since 2021. There are a total of 1,901 student-athletes receiving training at these facilities, 430 boarders and 1471 day boarders. There are currently 273,542 trainers throughout our nation. In international competitions, 3780 medals, including 1164 gold, 1111 silver, and 1505 bronze, were won in 2021. Our Ministry offers medical and scientific assistan- ce to athletes training for the Olympics, Paralympic Games, and European and World Championships, organises periodic health and performance fol- low-ups and training and complies with internati- onal anti-doping convention obligations. The total number of licenced athletes is 10,913,906. Sports Clubs The Ministry of Youth and Sports has 19,169 registe- red sports clubs and 2,043 school sports clubs as of the end of 2021. National Sports Projects Our Ministry carries out National Sports Projects to make sports accessible to all sectors of society, ex- pand sports to the grassroots level, and make sports a way of life in the lives of individuals through foste- ring a sports culture. Ongoing sports projects are Yüzme Bilmeyen Kal- masın (Let's Learn to Swim), Anatolia Stars League, Sokaklar Bizim (Streets Are Ours), Evinin Sultanla- rı (Sultans of the House), Koşabiliyorken Koş (Run While You Can), Sports Schools and Accessible Sports Schools of the Ministry of Youth and Sports, Sports Project for Children Residing in Social Ser- vice Centres, Sports Project for Children Attending the Presidency of Religious Affairs' Summer Quran Courses, and Mutlu Çarşamba (Happy Wednesday). Let's Learn to Swim: This Project aims to teach swimming to every individual above the age of four who does not already know how to swim. Swim- ming facilities and private swimming pools within the Ministry offer free swimming lessons for this purpose. Since our Project's implementation in 2019, 3,220,000 individuals have benefited from it. Anatolia Stars League: This Project aims to or- ganise more competitions, create an infrastructure for clubs and national teams, bring talented athle- tes from the provinces who are unable to compe- te at higher stages as a result of local activities in provinces, establish a sustainable talent searching system at the national level, and ensure that all sta- keholders collaborate to promote the development of sports. The Project's efforts continue across 27 sports disciplines. Since the 2013-2014 season, this Project has assisted a total of 36,500 individuals. Streets Are Ours: This Project's primary purpo- se is to not abandon our children and youth to the dangers of the street, to revive the neighbourhood culture, and to enable individuals to participate in sports. So far, 33,500 individuals have benefited from the Project, which started in 2019. Sultans of the House: The Project's primary goal is to offer women sporting chances. Within the sco- pe of the Project began in 2019, 33,000 individuals have thus far benefited. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 645 Run While You Can: This nationwide Project se- eks to spread the sports culture in our nation and contribute to the protection and development of public health by instilling in people of all ages the habit of engaging in sporting activities for a he- althy lifestyle with the help of trainers. A total of 3,885,000 individuals have thus far benefited from the Project started in 2012. Sports Schools: This Project seeks to instil a passi- on for sports in children and youth aged 5 to 18, tra- in athletes for sports clubs, ensure that participants specialise in at least one sports discipline, and spre- ad sports to a wider public. Our talented young ath- letes are encouraged to participate in the Anatolian Stars League and School Sports activities. More than 15 million individuals have thus far benefited from our Project started in 2001. Accessible Sports Schools of the Ministry of Youth and Sports: In coordination with the "Tur- kish Federation of Persons with Physical Disability, Federation of the Blind, Federation of the Deaf, and Special Athletes Federation," initial group training of trainers have been completed, and 1800 trainers began training persons with disabilities. Thus, the Project aims to increase the accessibility of sports to individuals with disabilities, accelerate their in- tegration into society, and enable those with high potential to become club athletes. This Project be- gan in 2014 and has assisted 32 thousand citizens so far. Sports Project for Children Residing in Soci- al Service Centres: This Project seeks to ensure that children and disabled citizens who receive services from Social Service Centres engage in so- cial life more actively and have more access to ga- mes, sports, and physical activities. Two hundred fifty-five thousand individuals have thus far bene- fited from the Project launched in 2013. Sports Project for Children Attending Summer Quran Courses: This Project seeks to help young people who attend A-B-C group Qur'an courses and summer Qur'an courses enjoy sports and cont- ribute to their growth by allowing them to engage in physical and social activities. The Project, which began in 2013, assisted 496,000 individuals. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 646 Happy Wednesday: "Happy Wednesdays Proje- cts", which is carried out every Wednesday in pro- vinces with the participation of citizens with spe- cial status to enable them to engage in physical activity so that they can adapt to society and lead a healthy life, aim to encourage them to engage in sports for a healthy life, participate more actively in social life, and make them feel a part of society. The Project, which began in 2019, has so far assisted 22,300 citizens. School Sports Activities School Sports refers to all organisations in which student-athletes compete with their age group on behalf of their schools in various sports disciplines and types of games under the banner of "Schools to Olympics" and in the spirit of fair play in order to learn how to succeed, share, make friends, socialise, and be a healthy individual. Since the 2010-2011 academic year, Provincial Di- rectorates of the Ministry of Youth and Sports have been organising these activities under the coordina- tion of the Directorate General for Sports Services. Since the 2010-2011 academic year, School Sports Activities have been organised in a total of 21 sports disciplines with 19 sports federations; however, sin- ce 2011, it has undergone many processes and ad- vancements and presently encompasses 76 sports disciplines with 54 sports federations. School Sports Activities are organised at the local, group, semi-final, and Türkiye National Champi- onship competition stages for the Primary, Secon- dary, and High School grades. School Sports Activities continue to be carried out by reaching 1,500,000 student-athletes in the 2021- 2022 academic year, with 437 group stage compe- titions, 60 semi-finals, and 175 Türkiye national championships planned. National Athlete Scholarships Thanks to the memorandum of understanding sig- ned between our Ministry and Foundation Univer- sities, successful athletes are now given the oppor- tunity to study on fully funded scholarships at 75 foundation universities. In 2020, 76 national athletes from 18 federations enrolled in 26 foundation institutions on full scho- larships, and in 2021, 67 national athletes from 20 federations enrolled in 22 foundation universities on full scholarships as part of this. Our Ministry's units are coordinating with our fede- rations and universities so that a greater number of athletes whose applications are approved and who satisfy the criteria can enrol in foundation univer- sities. Protocols Established with Private Education Institutions The "Cooperation Protocol in the Education of Stu- dent-Athletes" was signed on December 29, 2020, between our Ministry and an educational instituti- on affiliated with Özder (Private Education Associ- ation), allowing successful athletes to study on ful- ly-funded scholarships. With the athletic scholarship for private education institutions, which began with the aforementioned protocol and expanded with the protocols and com- mitments of various private schools and colleges, student-athletes certified by the Ministry as having won gold, silver, or bronze medals in the relevant Ol- ympic and Paralympic sports organisations within the last two years are eligible to receive fully-funded education scholarships. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 647 As of May 11, 2022, the education scholarship quo- ta has been expanded to a total of 4,561 individuals from 81 provinces, and 544 students have received the aforesaid education scholarship. Sports Talent Searching and Sports Guidance Project of Türkiye So far, within the scope of the Sports Talent Sear- ching and Sports Guidance Project of Türkiye, la- unched in 2018 in cooperation with the Ministry of Youth and Sports and Ministry of National Educati- on, "2 million 344 thousand 755" third-graders have been scientifically tested and evaluated in order to identify children who are predisposed to sports at a young age and promote the development of a sports culture. According to test and evaluation results, 146 thousand students with a greater propensity for sports were invited to take part in Basic Sports Trai- ning under the supervision of the Ministry of Youth and Sports. Upon completing their sports training, as well as the tests and evaluations, 28,977 students were guided towards numerous sports disciplines. Sports training and classification activities conti- nue to contribute to the socialisation of approxima- tely 3,593 disabled students who were a part of the talent search and those to be a part of it within the scope of the Project, with the help of sports and to train them for Paralympic sports through the deve- lopment of specialised training for their disability. Talent search, training, and guidance efforts initia- ted as a project in 2018 are performed annually. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 648 CURRENT TOTCS IN PROVINCES (24 PROVINCES) ANKARA DİYARBAKIR KONYA AFYON EDİRNE MALATYA AKSARAY ERZURUM MANİSA ADANA GAZİANTEP MERSİN ANTALYA İZMİR RİZE ARTVİN KAHRAMANMARAŞ SAKARYA BOLU KAYSERİ SAMSUN BURSA KOCAELİ TRABZON 21 OLYMPIC SPORTS DISCIPLINES SHOOTING WRESTLING TENNIS ATHLETICS WEIGHTLIFTING TRIATHLON CYCLING JUDO ARCHERY BOXING CANOE SAILING FIGURE SKATING SKIING SWIMMING GYMNASTICS ROWING CURLING MODERN PENTATHLON FENCING TAEKWONDO Türkiye Olympic Training Centres (TOTC) These centres were established to select and train athletes who will or are likely to compete in the Ol- ympics, improve their performance, and provide a standard practice for their education and social de- velopment. On November 23, 2013, they began the- ir activities with 164 athletes (108 boarders and 56 day-boarders) in 13 provinces. "In this regard, our Türkiye Olympic Training Cent- res currently continue to train 1119 athletes (476 bo- arders and 643 day boarders) in 21 Olympic sports in 24 provinces." OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 649 259 TOTC athletes have been eligible to enter the Olympic athlete pool created for the Olympics once the activities of TOTCs began. A total of 32 athletes who qualified for the Olympic Pool via TOTC at the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games received quotas and won a total of four medals, one gold and three bronze. A total of 52 athletes who qualified for the Olympic Pool via TOTC competed at the 2018 Mediterrane- an Games and won a total of 28 medals, including 12 gold, five silver, and 11 bronze. In 2019, a total of 37 athletes who qualified for the Olympic Pool via TOTC competed at the 2nd Euro- pean Games and won one silver and two bronze medals. At 2019 EYOF, 43 TOTC athletes competed and won a total of 16 medals, eight gold, three silver, and five bronze. Our athletes, who continue their activities in our centres, have won 1,518 medals in international competitions. In accordance with the plan designed to prepare our athletes to win medals at the Olympic Games of 2020 and 2024, training programmes based on scientific principles are implemented in our centres by Academic Advisors and 309 expert trainers. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 650 A fter the London 2012 Olympics, this was the Olympic Games which we attended with the highest number of athletes. Due to Covid-19, the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paral- ympic Games were postponed, and the Games were instead held in Tokyo in 2021. At the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, 108 athletes, 50 women and 58 men, represented our country in 18 branches. At the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, our athletes rece- ived a total of 13 medals, two gold, two silver and nine bronze. This was the Olympic Games where we won the most medals in our country's Olympic history. Tokyo 2020 was the Olympic Games where our country won the most medals in our sport's history, 13 in total, surpassing London 1948's total of 12 me- dals. Having previously won Olympic medals in 6 branc- hes, Türkiye added three new branches to these bran- ches in Tokyo 2020. Türkiye won the Olympic medal for the first time in archery, gymnastics and karate. ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE INTERNATIONAL SPORTS COMMUNITY OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 652 Our medal-winning athletes are as follows: Archery - Mete GAZOZ - Gold Boxing - Busenaz SÜRMENELİ - Gold Boxing – Buse Naz ÇAKIROĞLU - Silver Karate - Eray ŞAMDAN - Silver Gymnastics - Ferhat ARICAN - Bronze Karate - Ali SOFUOĞLU - Bronze Karate - Merve ÇOBAN - Bronze Karate - Uğur AKTAŞ - Bronze Wrestling - Rıza KAYAALP - Bronze Wrestling- Taha AKGÜL - Bronze Wrestling - Yasemin ADAR - Bronze Taekwondo - Hatice Kübra İLGÜN - Bronze Taekwondo - Hakan REÇBER - Bronze While Türkiye had won medals in up to four Oly- mpic sports in the past (2000-2004 and 2016), it won medals in six Olympic sports at Tokyo 2020 (archery, boxing, karate, gymnastics, taekwondo, wrestling). While our total number of medal-winning female athletes prior to the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games was only five, five female athletes won medals in Tokyo 2020 alone. After the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games, this was the Paralympic Games that we attended with the most athletes. In the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, a total of 87 athletes, 44 women and 43 men, represented our country in 13 branches. Our athletes won a total of 15 medals at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, including two gold, four silver, and nine bronze. This was the Paralympic Games, where we won the most medals in our nati- on's Paralympic history. Our medal-winning athletes are as follows: Abdullah ÖZTÜRK - Gold Goalball Women's Team - Gold Nihat TÜRKMENOĞLU - Silver Ayşegül PEHLİVANLAR - Silver Öznur CÜRE - Bülent KORKMAZ (Mixed Team) - Silver Meryem Betül ÇAVDAR - Silver Besra DUMAN - Bronze Nesim TURAN - Bronze Recep ÇİFTÇİ - Bronze Ali ÖZTÜRK - Bronze Kübra KORKUT - Bronze Zeynep ÇELİK - Bronze Sevilay ÖZTÜRK - Bronze Bahattin HEKİMOĞLU - Bronze Mahmut BOZTEKE - Bronze Tokyo 2020 was the Paralympic Games where our nation won the most medals with 15, surpassing the ten medals it won in London 2012 and in the hig- hest number of disciplines (eight). Türkiye, which had previously won Paralympic medals in seven different disciplines, added two new disciplines in Tokyo 2020. Türkiye won its first Paralympic Ga- mes medals in swimming and para taekwondo. In previous Paralympic Games, Türkiye won medals in up to six disciplines. However, at the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, it won 15 medals in eight discip- lines setting a new record in this field. Eighty-seven athletes, 44 women and 43 men, participated in the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games. For the first time in our Paralympic Games history, our number of female athletes was more than our number of male athletes. Today, there are 67 autonomous sports federations (37 Olympic, 3 Paralympic, 1 Deaflympic, 26 non-Ol- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 653 ympic) operating in affiliation with the Ministry of Youth and Sports. Athletics Türkiye's athletics federation, whose success at in- ternational championships has increased signifi- cantly in the 2000s, celebrated its 90th anniversary in 2012. The same year, the World Athletics Indoor Championships were held in İstanbul. This organi- sation, which broke a record with 171 countries par- ticipating, was the first athletics world champions- hip organised by Türkiye. In 2016, Yasmani Copello won the third Olympic medal in the history of the National Team. Yasmani won a bronze medal by breaking the Turkish record in the 400-meter hurdle final of the Rio Olympics by running in 47.92 seconds. Türkiye, which ranked first in the medal standin- gs at European Cross for the first time in 2016 and came out on top in all Balkan championships, has emerged as a regional athletic powerhouse. In 2017, Ramil Guliyev became the first Turkish athlete to win the world championship in London. He also won the Islamic Solidarity Games the same year, the Mediterranean Games the following year, and the European Championship in Berlin. Türkiye has become one of the leading athletic nations in Europe due to its gradual increase in international medals and its cultivation of star athletes. Turkish Athletics teams have also achieved great success in youth categories in recent years. Whi- le Emel Dereli won the World U18 championship in the shot put in 2013 and Mizgin Ay in 2017 at 100-meter, Meryem Bekmez reached the world se- cond place in both U18 and U20 in race walking. In 2021, Berke Akçam won the World U20 champions- hip in the 400-meter hurdle and brought Türkiye the second gold medal in its history in this category. The National Team, who won 10 medals at the 2019 European U20 Championship, participated in the organisation where they won the most medals in a single competition. National athletes who finished in the top eight in four events at the most recent Ol- ympic Games in Tokyo had their most successful Olympics in this regard, reaching six finals. This year marks the 100th anniversary of the Tur- kish Athletics Federation, which serves over a thou- sand clubs and over 180 thousand licenced athletes in athletics, one of the most popular sports in our country. Each year, the Turkish Athletics Federati- on schedules over 200 events, including nine diffe- rent league competitions and dozens of internatio- nal contacts. In the past 100 years, Turkish athletes won one silver, two bronze medals at the Olympic Games, one gold, three silver medals at the World Athleti- cs Championships, 11 gold, eight silver, nine bronze medals at the European Athletics Championships, and 23 gold, 31 silver, 39 bronze medals at the Medi- terranean Games. Together with the World Cham- pionships and regional organisations such as the European Championships, Balkan Champions- hips, and Islamic Solidarity Games for younger age groups, the Turkish Athletics Federation has won OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 654 over 1700 medals and made it a point of pride to represent our flag with crescent and star duly. Shooting Shooting activities started in 1923 under the umb- rella of Türkiye Training Communities. Founded in 1923, the Shooting Federation has been operating autonomously since September 21, 2006. It currently has two main branches. These are the Shotgun and Air and Firearms branches. Şevval İlayda TARHAN, representing our nation in the 10M Air Pistol Junior category of the 16-25 Mar- ch 2019 European Air Guns Championships, won the gold medal by breaking Europe's Youth record. Murat İLBİLGİ, who competed in the Trap Men Junior category of the European Shotgun Champi- onships held between September 3-17, 2019, retur- ned home with a gold medal from the European Championships after breaking the European Youth Record by achieving the same success for two con- secutive years. Our national athletes Yusuf DİKEÇ, Yavuz KESKİN, and Murat KILIÇ, who participated in the European Shooting Championships held between September 12-23, 2019, achieved a first in the history of shoo- ting with their team scores. Our nationals won the Gold Medal in the 25M Standard Pistol Team cate- gory. On the 101st anniversary of the adoption of our Na- tional Anthem, our national athlete, Oğuzhan TÜ- ZÜN, who represented our country in the Shotgun World Cup's Trap Men category held in the Greek Administration of Southern Cyprus (GASC) betwe- en March 8-19, 2022, won a gold medal in the me- dal match, waving our flag along with our National Anthem. Our mixed team of Murat İLBİLGİ and Rümeysa Pe- lin KAYA, who represented our country at the Sho- tgun World Cup held in the GASC between March 8-19, 2022, was awarded the gold medal. Cycling The first cycling races in the Ottoman period were held in Selanik (Thessaloniki). In 1910-1912, the first bicycle races were organised by Leon Efen- di and his business partner Papazyan, who were engaged in the import of bicycles with individual entrepreneurs who recognised the lucrative poten- tial of these events. The Cycling Federation, which was established in 1923 following the formation of the Türkiye Training Community Alliance and ac- cepted as a member of the International Amateur Cycling Federation (FIAC) in the same year, played a significant role in the development of cycling th- roughout the country. With the formation of specia- lised clubs, cycling has steadily gained momentum. İstanbul Cycling Biking Specialty Club Association was founded in 1968 as the first cycling club in Tür- kiye. Erol KÜÇÜKBAKIRCI won the road bicycle race at the Balkan Cycling Championship held in İstanbul. In 1980, Hasan Can came first in the International Atatürk Cycling Race, and İbrahim PEKCAN won a silver medal in the Balkan Championship held in Romania. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 655 In 1991, the "Mountain Bike Race" was organised by the Cycling Federation for the first time, and the Na- tional Youth Team came 3rd in the Balkan Champi- onship held in Rhodes in the same year. In 1994, the number of clubs increased to 26, and an increase was observed in the number of athletes in parallel with the number of coaches, referees and bicycles. In 1995, an increasingly popular sport, the motor- cycle branch, left the Cycling Federation and joined the Automobile Sports Federation. The federation was renamed the Cycling and Triathlon Federation in the same year. The Cycling Federation, restructured in 2007, be- gan to emerge on the international stage by deve- loping its R&D systems. In line with this, the Euro- pean Mountain Bike Championship, held in 2007, was organised in our country. As a matter of fact, the Presidential Cycling Tour, which is an impor- tant international organisation, was carefully orga- nised for years and increased its level from 2.2 to 2.1 in 2008. This organisation has now taken its place on the international stage, and with its successful organisations in 2008 and 2009, it has also incre- ased its level to 2.0 in 2010 and achieved rapid suc- cess. Adding to its long list of accomplishments, the Federation ensured that the 2010 European Road Championship was held in our nation. The success of Turkish athletes in the European Under-23 and Junior Track Cycling World Cham- pionship held between July 26-31, 2011, in Portugal brought joy. Ahmet Örken (18), who achieved a first in the history of Turkish cycling, was crowned the European Champion of young cyclists in the "Omni- um" branch, which is a six-discipline, multiple com- petition on track cycling. Bridge Türkiye is the birthplace of bridge, which is thought to have been created by Turkish and British soldiers who came to İstanbul in 1856 during the Crimean War. The first rules of the game were established in 1871. Our country held its first bridge tournament in 1954, and our first national team competed in Oslo in 1969. The Turkish Bridge Federation was established in 1997 and is affiliated with the Turkish Ministry of Sports. 1960 marked the first ever Bridge Olympics, orga- nised by the World Bridge Federation, founded in 1958. The 12th Bridge Olympics in 2004 was held in İstanbul with the participation of 83 countries and 3000 people. 2006 World Championship OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 656 2006 Senior Category European Championship 2008 Senior Category European Championship 2008 Three World Championships in the World Puzzle Championship 2009 Mixed Pairs European Championship 2019 Senior Category European Championship Bocce, Bowling, Darts The Federation, which gained autonomy on Janu- ary 22, 2006, currently has representatives and acti- vities in 81 provinces, operating in four sub-discipli- nes of Bocce: Raffa, Petanque, Volo and Lawn Bowl, Dart's steel-tipped and electronic systems, and ten- pin Bowling systems, the most popular form of con- temporary Bowling. In Bocce, our national teams compete in Europe- an and World Championships in all categories and represent our nation in multisport events such as the Mediterranean Games, Gymnasiade, and Wor- ld Games. Our national teams, which achieved sig- nificant success in these competitions, won gold medals at the 2013 and 2018 Mediterranean Games and a very significant victory in the most recent Bocce Women's World Cup. Over the past several years, the Federation has hos- ted two European Championships, two Mediter- ranean Cups, and two international score-based tournaments that have been ongoing for decades. Finally, the Turkish national team achieved histori- cal success as a champion in the general category in the Mediterranean Cup, which was attended by 18 countries in 2019. Since 2007, the federation has organised the inter- national Turkish Open Tournament, approved by the World Federation. Since 2016, it has also orga- nised the Turkish Masters and the Mediterranean Open. In addition, one World Championship, four European Championships, one Mediterranean Cup and one European Soft Dart Championship were hosted by our country. Boxing TBF (Turkish Boxing Federation) was founded in 1924 and accepted as an AIBA (International Ama- teur Boxing Association) member in 1927. Eşref Şefik was appointed as the head of the Boxing Fe- deration. The federation, which only permits ama- teur boxing, organised the individual and interc- lub Turkish Championships and the International Bosphorus Boxing Tournament. In 1928, the first National Turkish Boxing Team was formed, and in the same year, we won our first international title in the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Melih Açba, who ushered in a new era in Turkish boxing by winning 358 of his 359 matches, won the 1938 "Golden Gloves" Championship in the United States. In addition, at the inaugural 1946 European Boxing Championships, Vural İnan was named the "Most Technical Boxer", and Halit Ergonül was in- vited to the mixed European team. In 1942, boxing formed its new self-governing federation, following a brief affiliation with the Wrestling Federation. Our boxers have represented our country in inter- national championships since 1946. Busenaz SÜRMENELİ came first at 75 kg, and Buse Naz ÇAKIROĞLU came second at 51 kg in the OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 657 Adults Category at the 2021 Tokyo Olympics. In the 2019 World Championships held in Russia, Busenaz SÜRMENELİ won the Adult Women's Ca- tegory at 69 kg. In the 2021 World Championships held in Poland, Büşra IŞILDAR won the Young Women's Category at 81 kg. Gymnastics In 1957, with the efforts of Esat Kazancı Bey, the Tur- kish Gymnastics Federation was established, but its name was referred to as "Gymnastics and Scouting Federation". In 1960, it left the Scouting Federation, and its name changed to the Turkish Gymnastics Federation. Especially the international accomplishments atta- ined through the past decade's efforts have contri- buted significantly to the development of the dis- cipline. Our first Olympic gymnastics athlete, Göksu ÜÇTAŞ Şanlı, competed in the London Olympics in 2012. İbrahim ÇOLAK won the gold medal in the rings at the first European Artistic Gymnastics Champions- hips in 2019. In 2020, he won the gold medal in the National Team Groups of the Rhythmic Gymnastics Europe- an Championship. Ümit ŞAMİLOĞLU won the bronze medal in the horizontal bar at the European Artistic Gymnastics Championships in 2008. Ayşe Begüm ONBAŞI won the gold medal at the Ae- robic Gymnastics World Championships in 2021. Ferhat ARICAN won the bronze medal in the paral- lel bars at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. Curling The curling discipline, which carries out its acti- vities within the body of the Turkish Ice Skating Federation as of 2010, was established under the name of "Turkish Curling Federation" as an affilia- ted federation with the approval of the Ministry da- ted January 20, 2015, and numbered 78. The young people who pioneered the sport of cur- ling in Türkiye in 2009 proudly represent Türkiye's name and flag throughout Europe and the world. Türkiye's first international success came in 2010 when it won a silver medal in Division C of the European Curling Championships. The men's team followed the success of the women's team in 2011, and the men's team won a bronze medal in the same championship. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 658 In 2012, the men's and women's teams competed in Division C of the European Curling Champions- hips, with the men's team winning gold and the wo- men's team taking silver. In 2015, the young men's team won bronze, and the young women's team won silver at the European Ju- nior Championships. With the success of the youth teams, we participated in the Winter Youth Olympic Games for the first time in our history in 2016, finis- hing eighth in the mixed team category. We compe- ted in the World Junior-B Curling Championships in 2017 and finished second with both men's and women's teams, winning the silver medal. Türkiye finished fifth in the World Mixed Champi- onships in 2018, competing against 35 other count- ries. Our women's team, which finished third in Division B of the European Curling Championship in Estonia the same year, brought home the bronze medal. In 2019, our teams won a total of 4 medals on the European and World stage. In 2021, our Men's National Team won the gold me- dal in Division B of the European Curling Champi- onship in Norway. They advanced to division A as a result of their success. Esports Esports is played online or offline using an electro- nic device, individually and as a team. Turkish Esports Federation (TESFED) was establis- hed on April 24, 2018. By obtaining the votes of 19 countries from 24 countries, it established the European Esports Fe- deration as a founding board member in 2020. In addition, TESFED continues its international acti- vities as a full member of the International Esports Federation (IESF) and a founding member of the Global Esports Federation (GEF). It brought the Global Esports Games, the signature event of the Global Esports Federation, to İstanbul in 2022 th- rough diplomatic initiatives and planned to host nearly 100 nations. 1 - In the European Nations Cup 2021, Türkiye was ranked 2nd in Europe by defeating its competitors in the PES tournament held in Ukraine. 2- NBA 2K20 - FIBA Esports Open European Bas- ketball Championship OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 659 3- NBA 2K21 - FIBA Esports Open European Basket- ball Championship In the European Basketball Esports Championship held under the name of the FIBA Esports Open in 2020 and 2021, our country was the champion for two consecutive years. 4- IESF EILAT 2020 12th Esports World Champions- hip Türkiye's DOTA 2 National Team was the 3rd Euro- pean qualifier for the World Championship. Fencing Fencing was first convened under the umbrella of a Federation in 1923. In the 2000s, Turkish fencing underwent significant change and transformation. The sport of fencing, previously practised in far fewer cities, began to rapidly spread in Anatolian provinces in 2007 and became a well-known dis- cipline. The number of active athletes and clubs has increased, and in the last ten years of the 99-year history of Turkish fencing, medals of international significance that were not achieved in previous ye- ars have been won. Participation in the Rio Olym- pics was obtained as a result of the qualifying com- petitions for the first time in 2016, and significant success was achieved by securing a direct quota at the Tokyo Olympic Games in 2021. İbrahim Ahmed Acar won gold in the cadet men's sabre category at the 2017 European and World Cadets and Juniors Fencing Championships (The first European and World Championships in our history). The Women's Sabre Team won the gold medal at the 2017 European Under-23 Championship (First European Championship in the Team category in our history). OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 660 Nisanur Erbil won gold in the cadet girls' sabre cate- gory at the 2019 European Cadets and Juniors Fen- cing Championships. Sports Disciplines for the Visually Impaired The visually impaired sports in our country ope- rated under the umbrella of the Turkish Disabled Federation between 1990 and 2000 and gained the status of the Independent Sports Federation with Ministry approval dated 12/07/2000 and numbe- red 5812, and currently operates in Goalball, Blind Football, Partially-Sighted Futsal, Athletics, Chess, Weightlifting, Judo, Swimming, and Cycling dis- ciplines. Ömer Galip KESİM won first place in the World Championship held in Miami in 2009 and brought our country the first world championship in visually impaired sports. Semih DENİZ and Mehmet Nesim ÖNER each won one gold medal, while Öznur YILMAZER won three gold medals at the 2014 European Athletics Cham- pionships in Wales. In 2015, we became the European Champion for the first time at the Blind Football European Champi- onships in Hereford, England. Türkiye's Men's and Women's national teams won the European Goal- ball Championships in Kaunas, Lithuania, in 2015, marking a first in Europe. Our Women's National Goalball Team won the gold medal and was crowned champion at the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games held in Brazil. This champions- hip is historically significant because it is the first championship secured by Türkiye in team sports in Olympic history. In the 2016 European Para Athletics Champions- hips in Grossetto, Italy, Öznur Alanur, competing in the 1500m, Semih Deniz, stopping the clock at 4:11.97 (thus breaking the European record), and Hasan Hüseyin Kaçar in the 5000m, won gold. Zeynep Çelik won the Women's European Cham- pionship at the 2017 International Blind Sports Fe- deration (IBSA) European Judo Championships in Walsall, England. Zeynep Çelik made history for the Turkish National Teams at the 2018 IBSA World Championship in Portugal by becoming the country's first-ever Wor- ld Champion. Our Women's National Team won the 2019 IBSA European Goalball Championship, which was held in Rostock, Germany. Our athlete Sevda Altınoluk led the championship in scoring 39 goals, a record yet to be matched. Büşranur Tırıklı won the discus throw at the 2021 European Para Athletics Championships in Poland, and Oğuz Akbulut won the 400m. Büşranur Tırık- lı's ranking in discus throwing is a first in Turkish athletics history. Our Women's Goalball National Team won the Pa- ralympic World Championship for the second time in Tokyo in 2022, marking our country's first and only instance. Sevda Altınoluk is the top scorer with 43 goals and has an unbreakable record in this ca- tegory. The BBC named Sevda Altınoluk one of the 100 most inspiring and influential women in 2021. Paralimpik judocu Zeynep Çelik OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 661 Weightlifting Weightlifting, as we know it today, began in Türkiye at the end of the 19th century as part of apparatus gymnastics, led by the French teachers of Galata- saray High School. Faik Üstünidman was the first Turkish person in history to adopt this sport. The 1924 Olympics in Paris marked our first representa- tion in an international organisation. The fact that Naim Süleymanolu, of Turkish ori- gin, who competed for Bulgaria at the 1986 World Championships in Australia, took asylum in Türki- ye immediately after the competitions, and Levent Erdoğan secured three gold medals in the 1987 Me- diterranean Games, reignited our country's interest in weightlifting. However, true growth in Turkish weightlifting didn't start until after we secured our place as one of the most advanced countries in the sport and after weightlifters and trainers who came to our country as a result of forced migration from Bulgaria established positive relationships with the locals. Naim Süleymanoğlu established himself as one of the most successful names in Turkish and world weightlifting, having set three world records at the 1988 European Championships, nine Olym- pic and six world records at the 1988 Seoul Games, and winning a gold medal lifting a total of 320 kg at the 1992 Barcelona Games. In 1990, Hafız Süleymanoğlu won the World Wei- ghtlifting Championships in Budapest, Hungary, with 132.5 kg in the snatch. He also won the Senior European Championship in Poland in 1991. A total of eight medals were won as a result of the combi- ned efforts of Sunay Bulut and Halil Eroğlu, finis- hing in the top three in their respective weight cate- gories, thereby promoting Turkish weightlifting in the best possible way by securing our third-place fi- nish as a team. With the IWF's new ruling on weight classification in 1992, Naim Süleymanoğlu's four records were immortalised. With this new system, Naim Süleymanoğlu's 300 kg total records in 56 kg and three records 60 kg all went down in history to forever remain unbeaten. Our country hosted the 2010 World Senior Wei- ghtlifting Championships, where we won 5 gold, 7 silver, and 3 bronze medals. Furthermore, the 2012 European Weightlifting Championships were also held in our country, and our ath- letes won 6 gold, 8 silver, and 8 bronze medals. After wrestling, weightlifting became the sport with the most medals won at the Olympic Games. 1 silver medal at the 2016 Rio Olympics was secu- red. Additional medals included: 1 silver at the 2013 Senior Euro- pean Weightlifting Champions- hips; 2 golds, 3 silvers, and 1 bron- ze at the 2014 Senior European Weightlifting Championships; 2 silvers at the 2014 Senior World Weightlifting Championships; 6 golds, 3 silvers, 5 bronzes at the 2015 Senior European Weightlif- ting Championships; 1 gold and 1 bronze medal at the 2015 Senior Naim Süleymanoğlu OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 662 World Weightlifting Championships; 8 golds, 2 sil- vers, 2 bronzes medals at the 2016 Senior Europe- an Weightlifting Championships; 3 golds, 1 silver, 5 bronzes medals at the 2017 Senior European We- ightlifting Championships; 2 golds, 2 silvers at the 2019 Senior European Weightlifting Champions- hips; 3 golds, 6 silvers, 5 bronzes at the 2019 Senior European Weightlifting Championships, as well as 4 golds, 2 silvers, 11 bronzes at the 2021 Senior Euro- pean Weightlifting Championships. Handball Handball kicked off in Türkiye as field (outdoor) handball between 1927 and 1938. Our country's first substantial indoor handball practices date back to 1974-1975. The Handball Federation was founded as the 22nd Federation on February 4, 1976. At the final of the 1992 Men's Balkan Championship, which took place in İzmir and in which Romania, Bulgaria, and Greece competed, our Junior Natio- nal Men's Handball Team was crowned champion. In November 1993, the National Handball Men's Na- tional Team won the Balkan Championships for the first time in our nation's handball history. In the 2008 Universities World Championship, our women's national team became the world champi- on in the championship held in Venice, Italy. In the 2013 Mersin Mediterranean Games, our Men's National Team ranked 3rd in the games and won a bronze medal. Canoeing Canoeing is one of the newly developing sports branches in our country. In 2011, Mustafa Gülbahar won a gold medal in the Youth category at the Ca- noe Sprint U 23 and Youth European Champions- hips in canoeing, considered a sport suitable for the natural conditions and tourism potential of our country. In 2016, Lasma Liepa won the gold medal at the Canoe Sprint European Championship in the Adult category. In 2021, Lasma Liepa won the silver medal at the Canoe Sprint World Cup in the Adult category. Karate Between 1961 and 1963, karate activities, which spread rapidly in the continents of America and Europe in the second half of 1950, reached the size of being organised as national federations in spor- tive terms. The first European championship in the field was in 1966, and the first world championship was in 1970. It was after the establishment of the national federations of many European countries, the formation of the European Karate Union and the start of continental and world championships OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 663 that Karate DO activities started in our country. It could be dated back to 1969-1970 in Istanbul by Sensei Hakkı KOŞAR. Representing Turkish karate in European and World championships today, our youth have become the source of pride in Turkish sports with the degrees they have achieved in indi- vidual and team competitions. The peak that every sports branch wants to reach is the Olympic Games. In the Karate competitions held in 8 categories in the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games held in 2021, our country's athletes have ac- hieved a quota in 7 categories. At the end of the ga- mes, our national athletes went down in history by winning 1 Silver and 3 Bronze medals in the Karate branch. Luge Turkish Luge Federation was established on 23.05.2008, and our athletes have successfully rep- resented our country in many international activi- ties until today. In the "2014 Youth Artificial Asian Cup", our athletes Buse Çakır won first place, and Berfin Şefkatlioğlu won second place and medals in the name of our country. Rowing The important sporting achievements of the Fe- deration, which was established in 1957, are listed below. In 2004, our athletes Ahmet YUMRUKAYA and Emre VURAL became the U23 World Champions by winning the gold medal in the Light Weight 2- (coxless pair) category for the first time. In 2016, our athletes Enes KUŞKU and Hüseyin KANDEMİR managed to participate in the Olympi- cs by getting the Olympic quota in the light weight 2x (double scull) category for the first time. In 2021, our athletes Mervenur USLU and Elis ÖZ- BAY became the U23 World and European Cham- pions in the lightweight women's 2x (double scull) category for the first time. Modern Pentathlon The modern pentathlon was developed by the French Baron Pierre de Coubertin; It is an Olympic branch consisting of 5 disciplines: swimming, ath- letics, laser run, fencing and riding. At the Tokyo 2022 Olympics, in which we partici- pated for the second time, our national pentath- lete, İlke Özyüksel, showed an extraordinary per- formance and succeeded in being fifth out of 36 finalists in swimming, fencing, riding, running and laser run disciplines. This is a historic achievement for the modern pentathlon. Archery The recognition of archery as a sport in the world was realised with the establishment of the World Archery Federation in 1931. Turkish Archery Fede- ration gained administrative and financial auto- nomy on May 31, 2006. The Turkish National Archery Team has always succeeded in being a candidate to win gold medals in individual and team competitions in the interna- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 664 tional arena. Up to date, our athletes have won gold, silver or bronze medals as either individuals or te- ams in many international competitions. In additi- on to the medals, our athletes managed to be among the world's leading athletes with the European, World and Olympic records they broke in compe- titions. Mete GAZOZ and Yasemin Ecem ANAGÖZ, who successfully represented our country at the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games, which were postpo- ned due to the pandemic, made our country and our federation proud. At the 2020 Tokyo Olym- pic Games, these two archers won 4th place in the Mixed Teams category added to our branch. Upon this success, our athlete, Mete GAZOZ, won the tit- le of Olympic Champion by engraving his name in history with golden letters in the Men's Classic Bow category and won the gold medal. Orienteering Since the 1970s, orienteering in Türkiye has been carried out within the body of institutions affiliated with the armed forces and other public institutions. The Turkish Orienteering Federation was establis- hed on September 21, 2006. It is possible to regard the "9th Southeast European Orienteering Championships" held in 2019 as the most important achievement of the Turkish Orien- teering Federation, as it coincided with the South East Europe Cooperation Process (SEECP) Term Presidency (2020 July-2021 July) of our country. Our athletes won a total of 4 Gold, 7 Silver and 6 Bronze Medals in the South East Europe Orientee- ring races, in which we participated in the Junior, Stars, Youth and Adult categories. Auto Sports Auto sports events in our country started to be held regularly at the end of the 1960s, and a race inclu- ded in the European Championship was organised OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 665 for the first time in our country in 1972. The races, which were organised within the body of the Tur- kish Touring and Automobile Association (TTOK) in the first period, were brought under the umbrella of the federation with the establishment of TOS- FED (Turkish Automobile Sports Federation) in 1991; thus, an important step was taken for develo- ping automobile sports more. In the domestic racing season, which is organised every year between March and November, local events are held in eight national branches of the ral- ly, track, offroad, karting, climbing, rally cross, drift and classic car, and a total of 14 different branches including auto drag, Baja, offroad challenge, extre- me, autocross and slalom races, and nearly 100 ra- ces are organised in total. Our athletes and teams, who proudly represent our country with their success in the international arena, have recently won the FIA GT Teams Cup Championship (Ayhancan Gücen - Salih Yoluç), Le Mans 24 Hours Race Class First and World Endu- rance Championship Class Second (Salih Yoluç - Racing Team Türkiye), Porsche Super Cup second place and Porsche Carrera French Cup Champion (twice, Ayhancan Güven), World Rally Champions- hip Teams Cup third place (Serkan Yazıcı - Team Atakan), World Rally Championship WRC2 Teams Cup championship (TOK Sport), European Rally Cup Drivers (Yağız Avcı), Murat Bostancı, Musta- fa Çakal) Champion, European Rally Cup Teams Champion (Castrol Ford Team Türkiye), Balkan Rally Cup Champion (Mustafa Çakal) and Balkan Rally Cup Youth Champion (Ali Türkkan). Tennis The Turkish Tennis Federation, which gained its autonomous structure in 2004, works to bring ten- nis to the best level in our country, with 240 fede- rated clubs and more than 70,000 licensed tennis players. In recent years, our country has achieved significant success in this field. Türkiye has become one of the countries that organise the most interna- tional tournaments in the world, and the number of medals has increased by 30 per cent since 2016. TEB BNP Paribas Istanbul Cup, held in 2016, is re- membered as the most special tournament in Tur- kish Tennis History. While Çağla Büyükakçay lifted the first championship trophy for Türkiye in singles, İpek Soylu won Türkiye's first WTA doubles cham- pionship, giving the country a double victory at the TEB BNP Paribas Istanbul Cup. Istanbul Open, one of the biggest international tennis tournaments in Türkiye, has been included in the tournament ca- lendar of ATP as of 2015. Roger Federer is the first player to experience the joy of being a champion in singles at the Istanbul Open. Tuna Altuna, who came second with her partner Alessandro Motti in doubles, won the trophy for Türkiye in this tourna- ment in 2017. Bringing together the important na- mes of men's tennis since 2017, Antalya Open hos- ted top 10 players such as Matteo Berrettini, Alex De Minaur, Fabio Fognini and Dominic Thiem. Antalya Open is an organisation where our young tennis players experience firsts in their careers and un- dertake an important mission in terms of country OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 666 tourism by introducing Antalya to the world. Since 2020, world stars have been meeting in Türkiye in April every year with the TEB BNP Paribas Tennis Championship Istanbul tournament at TTF Istan- bul Tennis Centre. In May 2017, our national tennis players won 6 gold and 2 silver medals and left their mark on the Isla- mic Solidarity Games held in Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan. Our National Team, which won 2 gold and 1 bronze medal at the 18th Mediterranean Ga- mes held in Tarragona, Spain, in June 2018, took first place in the medal list in the tennis branch. In July 2018, Yankı Erel made history as the first Tur- kish tennis player to win the doubles championship at Wimbledon, to experience the championship in a Grand Slam tournament. In March 2019, Tennis Europe awarded our national tennis player Çağla Büyükakçay a Career Award. In January 2020, Atakan Karahan became the champion of Europe in the age group 14, breaking new ground in Turkish tennis history. In the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, our tennis referee Esin Kırat- lı took part in all Grand Slam tournaments and the Olympics and made a "Golden Slam". In July 2021, our two national tennis players played the final in the ATP Challenger tournament for the first time outside the country's borders. Altuğ Çelikbilek and Cem İlkel represented our country in the historical Turkish final of the Pozoblanco Open tournament held in Spain. Our A National Men's Team achie- ved a historic success by beating Uzbekistan 3-2 in the Davis Cup World Group I Play-Off series held in Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan, on March 4-5, 2022, and was promoted to World Group I. For the first time in its history, Türkiye hosted the Jr Davis Cup-Jr Billie Jean King Cup Finals, the Youth World Cup, in which 32 teams from 16 countries competed in September 2021. Special Athletes Our federation, established in 2000, provides sports to hundreds of thousands of Down, Autism and Mentally special athletes with 730 sports clubs in 15 branches in 81 provinces. Our special athletes won 140 gold, 100 silver and 126 bronze; a total of 366 medals at the European and World Championships. Our 3 special athletes, Esra Bayrak, Mihriban Kork- maz and Fatma Damla, represented our country with gold medals at the 2020 Paralympic Games and achieved historical success. Our Women's Para Athletics national team won first place with 6 gold, 5 silver, 2 bronze medals and 32 points in total at the European Indoor Athletics Championships held on March 9-14, 2021. Our National Down Futsal Team became the European Champion in October 2021 in Italy. Underwater Sports Turkish Underwater Sports Federation was estab- lished in 1980. In 2006, Devrim Cenk ULUSOY won the World Championship in Free Diving Cube Apnea Branch and broke the world record. Alptekin BALOĞLU won the world championship in the Underwater Photography branch in 2006. In OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 667 2007, Devrim Cenk ULUSOY won the World Cham- pionship in the Free Diving Cube Apnea branch at the CMAS World Championship held in Bari, Italy. In the 1st CMAS Underwater Photography Euro- pean Championship held in Azores/Portugal in September 2014, our national Underwater Photog- raphy team became the European Champion by getting the most points in total. Our National Team became the undefeated World Champion at the CMAS U23 Underwater Hockey World Championship held in Hobart, Australia, in July 2017. The 5th CMAS Underwater Hockey U24 World Championship was held between 16-24 August 2019 in Sheffield/UK. Our Underwater Hockey U24 Men's National Team again became the World Champion by beating the host UK team 3-1 in the final match. The Turkish team became the first and only team to win the World Championship for the third time in a row. At the World Championship held in the unique underwater habitat of the Atlan- tic Ocean, the photo taken by Taner Atılgan-Çağlar Atılgan from the TSSF (Turkish Underwater Sports Federation) Underwater Photography National Team won the World Championship in the theme category. Our National Team, consisting of Taner Atılgan, Hakan Başar, and Çağlar Atılgan, Ersin Tohumat as their diving partners, advanced to the finals in 5 categories and placed among the top 10 and ranked 3rd among 21 countries in the team ran- king according to the total points received. CMAS Finswimming Senior World Championships were held in Tomsk/Russia on July 3-8, 2021. At the CMAS Finswimming Senior World Championship, in which 29 countries participated, TSSF Finswim- ming Senior National Team Athlete Derin Toparlak showed a magnificent performance in the men's 1500-meter surface water category and became the World Champion with a time of 12.38.27 minu- tes. Derin Toparlak: 1500 m. Surface Water World Championship CMAS Finswimming Open Water World Champi- onship was held in Santa Marta, Colombia, between 23-27 September. Our National Finswimming Team Athlete Derin Toparlak, representing our country at the World Championships, beat his opponents in the 5000-meter surface race and hit the gold medal. Our National Athlete won the first world champi- onship in our history in finswimming open water races, which is an extremely challenging category. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 668 Rugby The name of the Turkish Baseball, Softball, Prote- cted Soccer and Rugby Federation was changed to the Turkish Rugby Federation and entered into for- ce after being published in the Official Gazette on April 14, 2011. Our country came 2nd in the Europe Women's 7s Rugby Conference 1 Championship held in Zagreb, Croatia, in 2018. Our country came 2nd in the Europe Men's 7s Rugby Conference 1 Championship held in Belgrade, Ser- bia, in 2019. Rafting Rafting, as a sports branch, was first started in 2002 under the roof of the Canoe and Rafting Federation in our country. It was included in the Developing Sports Branches Federation (GSBF) in 2008, and the competitions officially started in 2009 for the first time. Turkish Rafting Federation was establis- hed on 05.06.2018. There are a total of 55 sports clubs in Türkiye, 32 of which are actively engaged in rafting in the club. The Rafting Federation has obtained significant ac- hievements in the European and World champions- hips, one of the most important of which is winning all the medals in a branch in the junior category in the Rafting world championships held in Japan and Italy in 2017 and 2018, breaking Brazil's record which had not been broken for ten years and being a world champion by winning 75 medals. Taekwondo The introduction of Taekwondo sport into our country is in the 1960s. It officially started its activi- ties in 1968 within the body of the Judo Federation, and for the first time officially participated in the European Championship in 1976, and our country became the second in Europe as a team. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 669 Turkish Taekwondo has constantly increased the bar of success and gained an identity at the top of the Olympic Games and World and European championships. Turkish Taekwondo, which retur- ned from all the Olympic games it participated in with a medal, hit the top in 2012 by winning a gold medal with Servet TAZEGÜL in the London Olym- pic Games. Servet TAZEGÜL won the gold medal and Nur TA- TAR the silver medal in London in 2012, and Nur TATAR returned with the bronze medal from Rio in 2016. Nur TATAR, who won the silver medal in London in 2012, won the bronze medal in the Rio Olympic Games in 2016, becoming the first Turkish female athlete to win a medal in 2 Olympic games in a row. With the bronze medals won by Hakan REÇBER and Hatice Kübra İLGÜN in Tokyo 2020, the num- ber of Olympic medals won by Türkiye in taekwon- do increased to 9. While Hakan REÇBER became 6th different ta- ekwondo athlete who won Olympic medals on behalf of Türkiye, Hatice Kübra İLGÜN made her name in history as the 7th name. National Taekwondo Athletes have so far received a total of 416 medals, including 76 gold, 135 silver and 205 bronze medals at the World Championships; they have also won a total of 1028 medals with 372 gold, 296 silver and 360 bronze medals in the Euro- pean Championships. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 670 EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL POLICIES -- INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE LABOUR LAW IN EMPLOYMENT -- SOCIAL PARTNERS -- SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM AND ITS STRUCTURE SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM AND ITS STRUCTURE SOCIAL PARTNERS OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 672 I n Türkiye, employment, which is protected by the Constitution, has been regulated by law. Ac- cording to the Constitution, everyone is entitled to work in any area and make contracts. General Provisions for Individual Labour Law As a rule, the weekly work time is limited to a maxi- mum of 45 hours. Unless otherwise agreed, this pe- riod is employed in workplaces by dividing it equal- ly into the business days of the week. Working hours for labourers working underground in mines are li- mited to seven and a half hours per day and 37 and a half hours per week. According to the Labour Law, employment contra- cts can be of various types in terms of quality, dura- tion, and method of work. According to Labour Law No. 4857, written labour contracts for one year or longer are obligatory. If the employee is permitted to work at the workpla- ce by the employer, an employment relation is for- med. The maximum duration of the trial period in a permanent labour agreement is two months at the most. With collective labour agreements, however, INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE LABOUR LAW IN EMPLOYMENT OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 674 this period can be extended to four months. Du- ring the trial period, either party may terminate the labour agreement without notice and without compensation. However, the worker's wage and other rights for days worked are reserved. An employer who terminates the indefinite-term labour agreement of an employee with at least six months of service in workplaces with thirty or more employees must provide a valid basis foun- ded on the employee's competence or behaviour or the requirements of the enterprise workplace, or job. However, workers working underground are not obliged to have at least six months of ser- vice. In accordance with the Labour Courts Law, a worker whose employment contract has been terminated must submit a request for reemploy- ment to a mediator within one month from the date of notification of the termination notice, al- leging that no reason is given in the termination notice or that the reason shown is not based on a valid ground. If an agreement cannot be reac- hed at the end of the mediation, a lawsuit may be brought within two weeks of the date of the last report with the labour court. If the parties agree, the disagreement might be brought before a spe- cial arbitrator rather than the labour court within the same period of time. An application can be fi- led to the mediator within two weeks of the ex of- ficio notification of the finalised refusal decision. When a court or special arbitrator determines that the employer did not provide a valid reason or that the reason provided was invalid and the termina- tion is nullified, the employer must reemploy the employee within one month. If the employer does not reemploy the worker within one month of the- ir application, they must compensate the worker for a minimum of four months and a maximum of eight-month-wage. Employees under the Labour Law are eligible for yearly paid leave if they have worked at their workplace for at least one year, including the trial period, from the date they began their employ- ment. If the employee has worked for one to five years (including five years), the annual leave du- ration is 14 days; if the employee has worked for more than five years but less than 15 years, the annual leave period cannot be less than 20 days and if the employee has worked for more than 15 years (15th year included), the annual leave period cannot be less than 26 days. For workers engaged in work underground, these periods are extended by four days. The minimum yearly paid leave du- ration for workers under the age of 18 and over the age of 50 must be at least 20 days. Labour agre- ements and collective labour agreements can ex- pand these annual leave durations with pay. It is prohibited to employ children younger than 15 years old. However, children over the age of 14 who have completed their primary education may be employed in light jobs that do not hinder the- ir physical, mental, social, or moral development or those in school from attending classes. Child- ren under the age of 14 may be employed in arts, cultural, and advertising activities that do not prevent their physical, mental, social, and moral development or their school attendance, provided they sign a written contract and receive individu- al approval for each activity. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 675 It is prohibited to employ men under the age of 18 or women of any age in underground or underwa- ter mining, cable laying, sewerage, or tunnel cons- truction. It is prohibited to employ children and young persons under the age of 18 during the ni- ght in any industrial undertaking. Minimum Wage in Employment The Minimum Wage Regulation defines the minimum wage as "the minimum amount of remuneration paid to workers for a typical working day and sufficient to cover the worker's compulsory necessities such as food, housing, clothing, health, transportation, and culture over the current prices." The distinction between the minimum wage before and after the age of 16 was removed in our country in 2014, and a single national minimum wage was implemented regardless of age. In order to regulate the economic and social conditions of all types of workers who work under a labour agreement, whether or not they fall under the purview of Labour Law No. 4857, it is anticipated that the Minimum Wage Determination Commission, comprised of representatives of workers, employers, and the public sector, will determine the minimum wages in accordance with the laws and principles outlined in the Minimum Wage Regulation. Minimum Wage Determination Commission's Resolution No. 2021/1 of December 16, 2021, the daily minimum wage of a worker for one day of normal labour was set at 166.80 TRY (one hundred sixty-six lira and eighty kuruş) between January 1, 2022, and December 31, 2022. The relevant Resolution was promulgated in the Official Gazette on December 17, 2021. The gross minimum wage for 2022 is 5,004 TRY, and the net minimum wage is 4,253.4 TRY. Compared to the previous year, the net minimum wage climbed by 50.51%. The net minimum wage has increased by 23 times in nominal terms since 2002 and by 124.52% in real terms during the same period (as of April). Starting on July 1, 2022, the gross minimum wage was determined as 6,471 Turkish Lira, and the net minimum wage was determined as 5,500.35 Turkish Lira. Consequently, the net minimum wage has increased by approximately 30 per cent since January 2022. Compared to 2021, the cumulative increase rate for the net minimum wage has been roughly 95 per cent. In addition to the increase in the tax exemption amount, this increase in the minimum wage provides all workers with an additional income advantage. At the same time, by taking a historical step, a structural transformation was accomplished, and income and stamp taxes on the wages of all workers earning up to the minimum wage were eliminated. Thus, a lasting change has been made in this area, which has been extensively debated in employment. It is not permissible to pay workers less than the amount established by the Minimum Wage Determination Commission since the minimum wage, which is determined nationwide to apply to all occupations, is related to public order. The wage and social rights above the minimum wage may be freely determined by the labour agreement between employee and employer, collective labour agreements between the parties, or workplace personnel regulations. Occupational Health and Safety, Employment Auditing Türkiye has adopted a preventative policy to en- sure the well-being of employees. The occupatio- nal health and safety legislation was harmonised OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 676 with EU directives, and a separate Occupational Health and Safety Law was drawn up and enfor- ced in this respect. The relevant legislation pro- visions apply to all occupations, workplaces, and employees, regardless of whether they are in the public or private sector. To ensure the sustainability of the state-emplo- yee-employer dialogue, all parties are involved in the process of determining policies and strate- gies linked to occupational health and safety, and channels of communication are utilised actively. In this respect, the Occupational Health and Sa- fety Conference/Congress is organised annually with the participation of leading academics, ex- perts, non-governmental organisation represen- tatives, and officials from national and internati- onal organisations from many countries around the globe. A Research and Development Institute has been established to conduct research, develop measu- res to prevent the adverse effects of work-related hazards, conduct environmental measurement, analysis, testing, and risk assessments for workp- laces, organise training activities, develop sec- tor-level projects, prepare publications, and adapt to the most recent technological advances and in- ternational standards. Competent individuals and institutions are emp- loyed in the field of occupational health and sa- fety, while laboratories that measure, test, and analyse occupational hygiene are authorised in order to provide a trained workforce, private tra- ining institutions, occupational health and safety professionals to carry out guidance activities in workplaces, joint health and safety units to pro- vide occupational health and safety services to workplaces. Employers in Türkiye are obliged to ensure the OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 677 health and safety of their employees. In every workplace, in order to make workplaces safer and healthier, the required legislative framework has been established in order to implement numerous practices, such as employee training, periodic health surveillance, risk assessment, preparing emergency plans, and conducting exercises. Emp- loyers can appoint occupational health and safety professionals to provide guidance. Türkiye is an effective international actor, serving as Co-Chair of the G20 Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Experts Network, Permanent Secre- tariat of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation's Occupational Health and Safety Network, and Fo- cal Point in the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, with the goal of increasing and sharing knowledge and experience in occupatio- nal health and safety. The Ministry of Labour and Social Security is responsible for monitoring and auditing the imp- lementation of occupational health and safety legislation. On the basis of the audits and the data on occupa- tional accidents and diseases, legislative amendments, poli- cies, and projects are adopted to address the concerns that stand out. Many structural reforms in the sphere of social security have been implemented in order to counteract unregistered emp- loyment. To increase the effe- ctiveness of audits relating to unregistered employment, a risk-based audit approach has been adopted, cross-audit mec- hanisms based on data sharing have been implemented, auto- mation programmes have been developed to ensure that the entire audit process is conducted in an electronic environment, and the number of personnel in charge of audit and control at the Social Security Institution (SGK) has been increased to enhance the audit capacity. Turkish Employment Agency (İŞKUR) The Turkish Employment Agency (İŞKUR) was founded to safeguard, develop, and expand emp- loyment, prevent unemployment, and administer unemployment insurance. With the ratification of Turkish Employment Agency Law No. 4904 on June 24, 2003, the Agency was restructured in accordance with the demands and conditions of the time, along with the ability to represent social partners in management and to establish private employment offices. With Decree-Law No. 665 is- sued in 2011, the Agency also became responsible for the legislatively mandated provincial respon- sibilities of the Ministry of Labour and Social Se- curity. In addition, with the introduction of job and vocational counsellors in 2012, a portfolio-ba- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 678 sed system based on job seekers', employers', and schools' portfolios were integrated with consul- tancy activities, systematic consulting services were introduced, and significant improvements in quantity and quality were observed. Right to Rest and Leisure Article 50 of the Constitution guarantees emplo- yees the right to rest. Rights and conditions rela- ting to national holidays, together with paid annu- al leave, are regulated by law. According to the Labour Law, employees are en- titled to a minimum of 24 hours of uninterrupted rest (weekend) within a seven-day period, pro- vided they have worked on working days prior to the break. On non-worked weekend days, the employer pays the entire wage with no demand for labour in exchange. Two leave days per week are offered to employees of public institutions. Whether or not employees are required to work on national and general holidays is determined by collective labour agreements or labour agree- ments. If there is no provision in the agreement, the employee's permission is necessary to work on the specified days. Public institutions and organisations are closed on national and religious holidays, as well as on the first day of the year. October 29, when the Re- public was proclaimed, April 23, National Sovere- ignty and Children's Day, May 19, Commemorati- on of Atatürk, Youth and Sports Day, and August 30, Victory Day, are all national holidays. Religi- ous holidays, on the other hand, are Eid-al-Adha and Eid-al-Fitr, the dates of which change annual- ly according to the Islamic calendar. Other public holidays include January 1, New Year's Day, May 1, Labour and Solidarity Day, and July 15, Democra- cy and National Unity Day. Severance Pay The employee who has worked for the same emp- loyer for at least one year and whose labour agre- ement has been terminated in a manner that war- rants severance pay is entitled to severance pay equivalent to the number of years worked multip- lied by the last month's gross wage, including all social rights. Payments are made at the same rate for periods exceeding a year. By modifying individual or collective labour agre- ements in the employee's favour, it is possible to have severance pay compensated over the 30-day wage amount. The amount of severance pay an employee is eli- gible to receive based on their final gross wage cannot exceed the maximum retirement bonus paid for one year of service to the highest ranking government official according to the Civil Ser- vants Law. Regulations on Collective Labour Law In Türkiye, employees and employers have the right to form unions and higher-level organisati- ons without prior approval in order to safeguard and advance the economic and social rights and interests of their members in labour relations. It is free to join a labour union and leave a union. No one can be coerced to join a union, remain a mem- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 679 ber, or leave the union. Working in any workplace is not contingent on membership in a labour uni- on. Provisions on Union Work In accordance with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collective Labour Agreements, trade unions and confederations may be formed without prior authorisation by adhering to the procedures and principles governing their establishment. Unions may conduct business in the sector in which they are created. There is no requirement that public employers' unions be created and managed by public employers in the same industry. When its founders submit their founding by-law to the governorship of the province where the or- ganisation's headquarters will be located, organi- sations acquire legal personality. The application for trade unions must include written statements from founders stating that they meet the conditi- ons to be a founder; for higher-level organisations, general assembly decisions must be attached to the application. Bodies of the organisation and its branches inc- lude a general assembly, board of directors, su- pervisory board, and disciplinary board. Other bodies can be established by organisations as ne- eded. However, the general assembly's duties and powers, as well as those of the management, au- dit, and disciplinary boards, cannot be delegated to these bodies. The decision of the general assembly governs the application for membership in the higher-level or- ganisation (confederation). Membership in a hig- her-level organisation is granted with the consent of the authorised body specified in their by-law. It is not allowed to be a member of more than one hi- gher-level organisation at the same time. The ge- neral assembly must also approve the withdrawal from membership in the higher-level organisati- on. The decision to remove a person from the hi- gher-level organisation's membership is made by the higher-level organisation's general assembly. Organisations can be the founders of internatio- nal workers' and employers' organisations, freely join and withdraw from membership, cooperate, send or receive members and representatives, and establish overseas representations in order to ac- hieve the goals outlined in their by-law. With the approval of the Ministry of Interior and the Mi- nistry of Foreign Affairs, international workers' and employers' organisations can establish rep- resentative offices and become members of hig- her-level organisations in Türkiye. Legal Regulations Regarding Collective La- bour Agreement, Strike, and Lockout In Türkiye, a collective labour agreement must be concluded for a period of not less than one year and not more than three years. In exceptional cir- cumstances, collective labour agreements conc- luded to apply to work lasting less than one year may cover a period of less than one year. After signing a collective labour agreement, the parties cannot alter the duration of the agreement under any circumstances. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 680 Only members of a labour union which is a party to the collective labour agreement may benefit from that agreement. Workers who are not mem- bers of the labour union that is a party to the agre- ement may benefit from the agreement if they pay solidarity dues. Collective labour agreements contain provisions on a labour agreement's conclusion, substance, and expiration. Collective labour agreements can also include other provisions on the mutual rights and obligations of the parties, application and su- pervision of the agreement, and the means to re- sort to the settlement of disputes. A collective la- bour agreement can cover one or more workplaces within the same branch of activity. A "group colle- ctive labour agreement" can be concluded betwe- en a workers' trade union and an employers' trade union to cover the workplaces and enterprises in the same branch of activity belonging to more than one member employer, and a "framework ag- reement" at the level of the branch of activity can be concluded between workers' trade unions and employers' trade unions which are members of workers' and employers' confederations represen- ted in the Economic and Social Council. Employment As of May 2022, the total number of employed individuals in Türkiye reached 30 million 769 thousand. According to the 1st Quarter (Janu- ary-February-March) data of 2022, the share of employment in agriculture is 14.8%, the share of employment in the industry is 22.2%, the share of employment in construction is 5.5%, and the share of employment in services is 57.4%. Moreover, according to the 1st Quarter data, 62.9% of the employed are men, and 40.2% of them have not completed high school. 70.9% of the employed are paid or part-time workers, 16.7% are self-emp- loyed, 4.5% are employers, and 7.9% are unpaid fa- mily workers. Labour Force Participation Rate As of May 2022, the labour force participation rate is 53%. This rate is 71.3% for men and 35.1% for wo- men. According to the 1st Quarter (January-Feb- ruary-March) data of 2022, the labour force parti- cipation rate for those with less than a high school education is 45.1%, while the rate for those with a university degree is 77.4%. Men with less than a high school education have a labour force parti- cipation rate of 64.4%, while women have a rate of 25.5%. Men with a high school diploma have a labour force participation rate of 70.5%, while women have a rate of 33.9%. While men with a university degree have a labour force participati- on rate of 84.9%, women with a university degree have a rate of 69.2%. As part of its public employment services, Tür- kiye places greater emphasis on active employ- ment policies through the Turkish Employment Agency (İŞKUR). In this context, vocational tra- ining courses, on-the-job training programmes, special projects and practices are arranged within the scope of active labour market programmes to counteract the economic and social difficulties ca- used by unemployment. The purpose of vocational training courses is to educate people without a profession and incre- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 681 ase the employability of those who wish to im- prove their vocational skills. On-the-job training programmes, on the other hand, are designed for unemployed individuals registered to the agency in order for them to acquire professional expe- rience, study the practical aspect of the profession for which they have received theoretical training, and adapt to the workplace. In this context, İŞKUR organised vocational tra- ining courses for 1,854,112 people between 2002 and 2021, of which 58% were women. On the other hand, 2,376,437 individuals benefited from the on-the-job training programmes implemented between 2009 and 2021, and 51% of the partici- pants were young adults aged 15 to 24. During January-June 2022 period, 8,341 individu- als participated in vocational training program- mes, with 58% of trainees being female. During the same time period, 105,827 people participated in on-the-job training programmes, and 44% of the participants were between the ages of 15 and 24. With the signing of the Recruitment Agreement with Federal Germany on October 30, 1961, re- gular labour migration from Türkiye to foreign countries began. According to the Ministry of La- bour and Social Security data, the Turkish presen- ce abroad has approached 7 million since the end of 2021, with 5.8 million residing in EU member states. It is known that more than 3 million have gained citizenship in the nation they reside in. Every effort is made to safeguard the rights of Turks residing abroad in the areas of working life, social security, and other social areas, and these rights are protected through bilateral social se- curity agreements negotiated with the nations in which they reside. These agreements are closely monitored as they are put into effect, and if neces- sary, meetings and initiatives are carried out with our international counterparts to adjust them to the circumstances of the time. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 682 I n Türkiye, efforts to institutionalise emplo- yee-employer-government dialogue and coope- ration have always been prioritised in order to establish the concept of social cohesion and to find modern solutions to problems. Social dialogue me- chanisms are utilised effectively in all workplace arrangements. The Tripartite Advisory Board, re- gulated by Article 114 of the Labour Law, was estab- lished as a structure that supports social dialogue. The Economic and Social Council was established in 1995, and it gained legal status with the “Law on the Establishment, Working Principles and Proce- dures of the Economic and Social Council” dated April 11, 2011, and numbered 4641. Social partners and the Government can exchange opinions throu- gh tools such as the Minimum Wage Determination Commission and the Public Employee Consultation Board. In addition, with the inclusion of a paragraph to Ar- ticle 53 of our Constitution, public servants gained the right to organise, and public servants' trade uni- ons were formed. The September 12, 2010, amend- ment to the Constitution granted public servants the right to conclude collective agreements. The col- lective agreement provisions are applicable for two fiscal years following the agreement's issue date. SOCIAL PARTNERS OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 684 Workers' and Employers' Trade Unions Law No. 5018 of February 20, 1947, on Workers' and Employers' Unions and Associations of Uni- ons, enabled the establishment of trade unions for the very first time. Workers founded associations of unions in certain provinces and federations of trade unions in certain branches of activity. With the enactment of Law No. 274 on Trade Unions and Law No. 275 on Collective Labour Agreement, Strike, and Lockout in 1963, the Turkish labour movement experienced a significant turning po- int as workers were granted the right to strike and collective labour agreement as well as new econo- mic opportunities that strengthened the unions. After the 1982 Constitution, Law No. 2821 and 2822 governed collective labour relations. Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collective La- bour Agreements, drafted in 2012 in accordance with international norms and with the consent of the social partners, entered into force after its promulgation in Official Gazette No. 28460 of No- vember 7, 2012. This Law regulates the procedu- res and principles regarding the establishment, management, operation, supervision, working and organisation of workers' and employers' trade unions and confederations, as well as the proce- dures and principles for employees and emplo- yers to conclude collective labour agreements by mutually defining economic and social realities and working conditions, to settle disputes throu- gh peaceful means, and to engage in strikes and lockouts. Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions (TÜRK-İŞ) TÜRK-İŞ, the trade union confederation with the most members based on the number of affiliated unions, began its activities in 1952. From 1952 to 1963, when workers did not have the right to stri- ke, TÜRK-İŞ worked to enact laws favourable to the members it represented and to increase wages through negotiations. The number of trade uni- ons associated with TÜRK-İŞ and workers registe- red in these trade unions grew after 1963. In accordance with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collective Labour Agreements and according to the July 2022 Statistical Bulletin on the number of workers by the branch of activity and trade uni- on membership, 33 trade unions are members of TÜRK-İŞ, with 1,256,438 members. Confederation of Progressive Trade Unions of Türkiye (DİSK) DİSK was established in 1967. In accordance with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collective La- bour Agreements and according to the July 2022 Statistical Bulletin on the number of workers by the branch of activity and trade union member- ship, 21 trade unions are members of DİSK, with 220,357 members. Confederation of Turkish Real Trade Unions (HAK-İŞ) HAK-İŞ was established in 1976. In accordance with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collecti- ve Labour Agreements and according to the July 2022 Statistical Bulletin on the number of workers by the branch of activity and trade union mem- bership, 20 trade unions are members of HAK-İŞ, with 762,439 members. Confederation of All Trade Unions (TÜM-İŞ) Confederation of All Trade Unions (TÜM-İŞ) was established in 2015. In accordance with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collective Labour Agreements and according to the July 2022 Sta- tistical Bulletin on the number of workers by the branch of activity and trade union membership, 11 trade unions are members of TÜM-İŞ, with 1,624 members. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 685 Confederation of My Nation Trade Unions (ÜLKEM-İŞ) The Confederation of My Nation's Trade Unions (ÜLKEM-İŞ) was established in 2019. In accordan- ce with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Col- lective Labour Agreements and according to the July 2022 Statistical Bulletin on the number of workers by the branch of activity and trade uni- on membership, ten trade unions are members of ÜLKEM-İŞ, with 3,491 members. Confederation of Anatolian Trade Unions (ANADOLU-İŞ) The Confederation of Anatolian Trade Unions (ANADOLU-İŞ) was established in 2020. In accor- dance with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collective Labour Agreements and according to the July 2022 Statistical Bulletin on the number of workers by the branch of activity and trade uni- on membership, four trade unions are members of ANADOLU-İŞ, with 610 members. Confederation of Once Again Nationalist Tra- de Unions (YENİDEN MİSK) The Confederation of Once Again Nationalist Tra- de Unions (Yeniden Misk) was established in 2021. In accordance with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collective Labour Agreements and according to the July 2022 Statistical Bulletin on the number of workers by the branch of activity and trade uni- on membership, six trade unions are members of Yeniden Misk, with 225 members. In accordance with Law No. 6356 on Trade Unions and Collective Labour Agreements and according to the July 2022 Statistical Bulletin on the number of workers by the branch of activity and trade uni- on membership, there are 113 independent trade unions in Türkiye, with a total of 35,101 members. Turkish Confederation of Employer Associa- tions (TİSK) TİSK was founded in 1962 as one of the higher-le- vel organisations representing the employer se- ctor in industrial relations. According to the Mi- nistry of Labour and Social Security records, 20 employers' trade unions are TİSK members. Confederation of All Employers' Trade Uni- ons (TİSKO) TİSKO, another confederation representing the employer sector, was established in 2019. Accor- ding to the Ministry of Labour and Social Secu- rity's records, five employers' trade unions are TİSKO members. Public Servants' Trade Unions and Confede- rations In accordance with Law No. 4688 on Public Ser- vants' Trade Unions and Collective Agreement and according to the July 2022 Statistical Bulletin on the public servants' trade union and confedera- tion membership, there are 12 confederations and 231 trade unions subject to Law No. 4688. Accor- ding to the above-mentioned Statistical Bulletin, 11 trade unions are members of the Confederation of Public Employees' Trade Unions (KESK), with 150,338 members; 11 trade unions are members of the Turkish Confederation of Public Workers As- sociations (TÜRKİYE KAMU-SEN), with 526,684 members; 11 unions are members of the Confe- deration of Public Servants Trade Unions (ME- MUR-SEN), with 1,054,642 members; and there are 198 unions which are independent or affiliated with other confederations, with a total of 263,181 members. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 686 C onstitution and legislation, as well as bila- teral and multilateral international social security agreements, ensure the social se- curity of Turkish and foreign citizens residing in Türkiye, as well as Turkish citizens residing abro- ad. Article 60 of the Constitution stipulates, "Everyo- ne has the right to social security. The State shall take the necessary measures and establish the or- ganisation for the provision of social security." In line with Law No. 5502, the Social Insurance Ins- titution (SSK), the Government Employees Retire- ment Fund (Emekli Sandığı), and the Social Insu- rance Institution for Tradesmen, Craftsmen, and Other Self-Employed People (Bağ-Kur) merged under the umbrella of the Social Security Institu- tion (SGK). The country's social security system is financed by the government, the employee, and the employer. SGK is responsible for implementing a social se- curity system that is founded on social insurance principles, adheres to contemporary standards, and is efficient, fair, easily accessible, actuarially sound, and financially sustainable. As of May 2022, the overall number of actively in- sured individuals in SGK has reached 25,303,323, and the total number of individuals receiving monthly payments from SGK has reached 13,801,016. On the other hand, Law No. 5510 on Social Insu- rances and General Health Insurance, which was enacted as part of the "Social Security Reform" and entered fully into force on October 1, 2008, es- tablished a single financially sustainable pension SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM AND ITS STRUCTURE OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 688 insurance system in which insurance rights and obligations are equalised, as well as a general he- alth insurance system, which finances the provi- sion of equal, easily accessible, and quality health services to the entire population. For individuals who begin working for the first time after the effective date of Law No. 5510, the eligibility age for old-age and retirement pensions will be 58 for women and 60 for men, regardless of their employment status, until the year 2036. After that, the eligibility age will climb progressi- vely, and by 2048, it will be 65 for both men and women. With this Law, everyone in the country is covered by general health insurance, and every in- dividual under the age of 18 has been guaranteed access to health care without conditions. Unemployment Insurance "Unemployment Insurance" was ratified by the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye on August 25, 1999, with the adoption of Law No. 4447, and became an integral part of Turkish work life. The country-wide enactment of mandatory unemployment insurance for all insured indivi- duals who fall under its scope took effect on June 1, 2000. Within its scope, unemployment insurance has five different applications and aims to minimise the social and economic harms caused by unemp- loyment to the individual, the family, and the community. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 689 Depending on the number of premium days paid, "Unemployment Benefit" is provided for a period of six, eight, or ten months to individuals who are unemployed without their own will or fault and who fulfil the conditions of premium payment and duration of work. The "Short-time Working Benefit" provides inco- me support for a period not exceeding three mont- hs to the insured if their weekly working hours are temporarily reduced by at least one-third due to a general economic, sectoral, regional crisis or compelling reasons, or if their workplace activity is stopped completely or partially for at least four weeks without seeking the condition of continu- ity, for the period that they are unable to work at the workplace. The purpose of the "Wage Guarantee Fund" is to cover the wages of employees for three months in the event that their employer is unable to make payments owing to an arrangement of bankrup- tcy, the issuance of a certificate of insolvency, bankruptcy, or a postponement of bankruptcy. During the period of their unpaid leave of half of their weekly working time between 60 to 360 days following the end of their maternity leave, and de- pending on the number of births and conditions, "Half-Paid Allowance After Birth or Adoption" is paid to women who have given birth and women or men who have adopted a child under the age of three, and who also meet the necessary applicati- on and premium payment conditions. COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA -- MEDIA -- STATE-NATION COMMUNICATION: CIMER -- TÜRKİYE'S COMMUNICATION MODEL OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 692 MEDIA T he communication sector's power to inform the domestic and foreign public, enhanced by technological advancements, has grown to become an essential element of modern social life. Local and regional developments clearly have political, social, and, most importantly, economic consequences not only for those who live in that geography but also for the whole world. Türkiye's historical ties, geographic location, and strong po- sition in its region and around the world make it a significant news hub for all public opinion. As a matter of fact, in an international system full of uncertainties and rapid developments, the Turkish media and the international media in Türkiye have become more strategic than ever before. The Presi- dency's Directorate of Communications was estab- lished and institutionalised to fulfil specific functi- ons in response to this process in the new system. History of the Turkish Press The Turkish press began late due to the printing house's late arrival in comparison to its develop- ment in Europe during the Ottoman period. Howe- ver, due to Türkiye's young population and techno- logical advancements, the Turkish media now has publications and broadcasts of such high quality that they may reach many areas of the world. The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, a global brand in the field of public broadcasting, aspires to generate profound and comprehensive content OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 694 for targeted geographic locations with its missi- on to communicate the world to the world and its vision of "international impact by increasing the number of broadcasts in foreign languages with (TRT) "TRT World," "TRT Arabi," "TRT Deutsch," "TRT Russian," "TRT Français," and "TRT Balkan." TRT broadcasts reach seven continents, promo- ting Türkiye worldwide, presenting the world to Türkiye, and the world to the world through its channels: "TRT 1," the flagship channel, drawing inspiration from cultural and human values, from life itself, as well as from the intangible heritage of civilisation, and with its innovative and origi- nal programmes; "TRT Haber," Türkiye's most popular news channel; "TRT Çocuk," the go-to for children and families; "TRT 2," a culture and arts channel; "TRT Documentary," which transmits life into screens; "TRT Spor," the ultimate sports outlet; "TRT Spor Yıldız," an olympic sports chan- nel; "TRT Müzik;" "TRT EBA İlkokul," "TRT EBA Ortaokul," and "TRT EBA Lise," education chan- nels; "TRT 3 Spor-TBMM TV," broadcasting from the parliament; "TRT 4K," broadcasting in high definition; "TRT World," an English news channel that presents a new style of journalism with a dif- ferent perspective on the world; "TRT Arabi," an Arabic news channel that serves as a communica- tion bridge between Türkiye and the Arab world; "TRT Kurdi," which broadcasts in Kurdish; "TRT Avaz," which broadcasts to the Turkic cultural ge- ography and is the voice of the Turkic world; and "TRT Türk," which targets Turks living in Europe. Alongside television broadcasts, its radio broa- dcasting journey has been continuing since 1927 via "Radyo 1" music, entertainment, news-themed radio channel, "TRT FM" focusing on pop and con- temporary music, "Radyo 3" focusing on modern Western music and classical music, "TRT Nağme" focusing on Turkish classical music, "TRT Tür- kü" centred on Turkish folk music, "TRT Radyo Haber" focusing on news broadcasting, "Regional Radios (Antalya, Çukurova, GAP Diyarbakır, Er- zurum, Trabzon) broadcasting from 5 different re- gions of Türkiye at specific times of the day, "TRT VOT WORLD" broadcasting in 41 languages, "TRT World Radio" broadcasting news in English, "TRT Radyo Arabi" broadcasting news in Arabic, "TRT Radyo Kurdi" broadcasting in Kurdish, "TRT Tür- kiye'nin Sesi Radyosu" broadcasting for Turks in Europe, and "TRT Memleketim FM" broadcasting for Turks all over the world. With its co-produc- tion cinema projects, TRT aims to reach millions of people on global screens and contribute to both Turkish and international cinemas. In addition, "TRT International Film Plateaus" accommodates TRT productions by creating studio plateaus with OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 695 international standards, where all domestic and international production companies would wish to work because of its quality. "12 Punto – TRT Sc- ript Days," where the world's most prestigious sc- ript consultants, co-producers and directors meet, "TRT Geleceğin İletişimcileri (Communicators of the Future)" organized to contribute to the deve- lopment of young generation broadcasters, "TRT World Forum," which is organised physically and virtually with participants from all over the wor- ld, "International TRT Documentary Days," which was held to contribute to the further development and spread of documentary making, one of the fields in which TRT acts as an academy, and "April 23 TRT International Children's Festival," the first and only internationally celebrated children's fes- tival, where children from 120 different countries and our host children come together, are among its prominent activities. While shaping the history of broadcasting in Türkiye with its strong broad- casting foundations nourished by TRT's roots, it develops projects that influence the future with a "Digitalisation" vision, such as "TRT İzle," a strea- ming platform, "TRT Dinle," a music-radio-audio- book-podcast application, "TRT Çocuk Kitaplık," a library application designed specifically for child- ren, "TRT Çocuk Oyun Dünyası," a game applicati- on, and "TRT Bil Bakalım," a question-and-answer game application. Anadolu Agency, which has more than 3,000 employees from 124 nationalities and 41 offices abroad and representation in 100 countries, ope- rates in 13 languages, including Turkish, English, Arabic, Bosnian, Russian, French, Kurdish/Sorani, Kurdish/Kurmanji, Persian, Albanian, Macedoni- an, Indonesian, and Spanish. Printed Press The first Turkish printing house was established in the Ottoman territory in 1727. Following the es- tablishment of Ibrahim Müteferrika's first prin- ting house, the state and private printing houses paved the way for book publishing and journa- lism. Shortly after the first Turkish newspaper, Takvim-i Vekayi was published in 1831; its French, Greek, Persian, Armenian, and Arabic copies were published. It illustrates that the Turkish press has always prioritised informing domestic and international audiences. The first private news- paper, Tercüman-ı Ahval, was published in 1860. Afterwards, the idea of freedom grew with many newspapers published. In addition, the Turkish OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 696 press assumed a crucial role in informing the do- mestic and foreign public and supporting the na- tional defence during World War I and the Turkish National War of Independence. Another signifi- cant stride forward is the foundation of the Ana- dolu Agency, which was established prior to the opening of the new parliament. Many of the indi- viduals that contributed to the development of the press after the establishment of the New Republic were also prominent players in Turkish literature, politics, and bureaucracy, in addition to the press sector. Diversity in the press has increased dra- matically since the introduction of multi-party de- mocracy. Today, Turkish media has kept up with the developments in internet media and advan- cing technology and has found itself an important place in this field. Radio and Television Radio broadcasting in Türkiye began with the bro- adcasts of Istanbul Radio in 1927 and continued with the broadcasts of Ankara Radio in 1928. The first television broadcast in Türkiye was the tele- vision broadcast of Istanbul Technical University in 1952. The Turkish Radio and Television Corpo- ration (TRT) was established in 1964 as an auto- nomous legal entity with a special law to carry out radio and television broadcasts on behalf of the state, and served as the only institution engaged in television and radio broadcasting in Türkiye until 1990. The radio and television broadcasts, which continued under TRT since 1964, reached broader populations and geographic areas with the strengthening of their transmitters. Private ra- dio and television broadcasts in Türkiye began in 1990 without being subject to any legal regulation. The public monopoly on radio and television bro- adcasts was abolished by a constitutional amend- ment in 1993, allowing for commercial radio and television broadcasts. In 1994, the Radio and Te- levision Supreme Council was formed to regulate and supervise radio and television broadcasts. The Radio and Television Supreme Council is an autonomous and impartial public legal authority whose members are elected by the General As- sembly of the TGNA in accordance with Article 133 of the Turkish Constitution. Among the pri- mary duties of the Radio and Television Supreme Council are to create or commission and imple- ment television channel and radio frequency plan- ning within the frequency bands designated to the Supreme Council, to determine the administrative, financial, and technical standards for a broadcast licence, and to issue broadcast licences to those companies that meet these criteria, to supervi- se and revoke broadcast licences as necessary, to monitor and supervise the broadcast services of media service providers for conformity with the provisions of Law No. 6112 and international agre- ements to which the Republic of Türkiye is a party, to perform or commission public opinion polls about broadcasting services, and to share the re- sults with the relevant parties and the public. Within the framework of Law No. 6112 on the Es- tablishment of Radio and Television Enterprises and Their Media Services, broadcasting services are provided in Türkiye through terrestrial, cable, satellite, and internet settings. Law No. 6112 envi- sions the issuance of different licences to media service providers for each type, technique, and medium of broadcast. In this regard, the Supreme Council grants licences for radio, television, and on-demand service providers (IBYH) separately for each medium, assuming they satisfy the neces- sary criteria. The broadcasts of media service providers opera- ting within the borders of the Republic of Türkiye are supervised to ensure conformity with Law No. 6112, applicable legislation, and international tre- aties to which Türkiye is a party. While RTÜK Ex- perts supervise the compliance of broadcasts with broadcast service principles ex officio, audits also take into consideration citizen complaints addres- sed to the Radio and Television Supreme Council OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 697 via the 444 1 178 and ALO 178 Call Line, the e-form on the website, RTÜK Mobile, and e-Government. In addition, media service providers perform self-regulation via the ethical standards of bro- adcasting and the institution of audience repre- sentation. The reports of experts on broadcast violations are placed on the agenda of the weekly meetings of the Supreme Council and assessed. The Supreme Council may impose administrative penalties, programme suspension, or temporary suspension of broadcasting on media service pro- viders that break broadcasting standards, taking into consideration the severity of the violation and the broadcast area and context. Media Sector in Türkiye The media in Türkiye is a highly competitive sec- tor that includes both domestic and foreign media outlets functioning in a free market and providing different perspectives. There is a wide area of free- dom for those who seek to own a media company. According to TURKSTAT (Turkish Statistical Ins- titute) data, as of May 2019, there are 2,474 news- papers, 3,650 periodicals, 899 radio stations and 108 television channels in Türkiye. These num- bers include media outlets broadcasting on a local, regional, and national scale. Local media, descri- bed as the capillaries of democracy, is highly effec- tive in Türkiye. Many cities have local newspapers, television, and radio stations. A strong media sector creates a large economic field in addition to its public functions. According to the Advertising Agencies Association data, me- dia, and advertising investments in the first six months of 2020 totalled 7 billion 867 million TL, and media investments in the first six months of this year amounted to 6 billion 294 million TL. Main major media groups in Türkiye are: • Albayrak Group • Ciner Group • Demirören Group • Doğuş Group • İhlâs • Turkuvaz Media Group • TürkMedya Group There is a strong tradition of public television broadcasting in Türkiye. With its autonomy and impartiality guaranteed in the Constitution, TRT serves as a public service broadcaster operating across all media platforms. TRT reaches Türkiye and the entire world in 41 languages and dialects through its 18 television channels, 17 radio chan- nels, 7 digital news platforms, 4 print periodicals, and other digital outlets. The Rights of the Press in Türkiye Journalism is considered one of the prestigious professions in Türkiye. In addition, the personal rights of journalists are protected by Law No. 5953 on the Regulation of Relations between Emplo- yers and Employees in the Profession of the Press (Press Labour Law). The Press Labour Law regu- lates the working conditions and rights of journa- lists. The Republic of Türkiye is quite free in the field of media. Article 26 of the 1982 Constitution regulates freedom of thought and opinion, and Ar- ticle 28 regulates freedom of the press. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 698 The first two paragraphs of Article 28 of the Cons- titution read as, "The press is free and shall not be censored. The establishment of a printing house shall not be subject to prior permission or the de- posit of a financial guarantee. The State shall take necessary measures to ensure freedom of the press and information." Therefore, the Constitution pro- tects the right to freedom of the press. In addition, Press Law No. 5187, which entered into force in 2004, regulates press freedom as well as its use. Activities to Strengthen the Media The Presidency's Directorate of Communications was established within the scope of the Presiden- tial Government System, Türkiye's new form of government, to develop freedom of expression and thought, to establish a strong media infrastru- cture, and to accurately reflect the developments in the world to national and international public opinion. One of the Directorate's key objectives is to impro- ve the perception, expression, meaning, and value of national and international public opinion at all levels, with the goal of conducting communicati- on on a realistic, sustainable, and strong founda- tion. The Directorate places a high value on close cooperation with the local and national media as well as with the international media. Keeping tra- ck of international media and think tanks allows for evaluation, analysis, and reporting. Activities are carried out to improve the working conditions of members of the press, to conduct routine pro- cedures such as press cards and accreditation, to improve these procedures, and to meet growing demand for education, training, and information for members of the media. The Directorate aspires to create a realistic perception of Türkiye in the world's public opinion by maintaining continuous, qualified, and multi-directional relations with in- ternational institutions. " The Directorate carries out activities aimed at faci- litating the work of members of the press and inc- reasing the professional competence of members of the media, and The Directorate works to stren- gthen media institutions' and organisations' coo- peration with state entities in their interactions with national and international media. Within this framework: • Issuing press cards and press traffic cards to media members, • Ensuring that they receive service-stamped passports when they travel overseas, • Keeping professional seniority and various accreditation procedures, • Improving the working conditions of press members, facilitating their professional life, contributing to their professional develop- ment, and solving the problems they encoun- ter while performing their profession, • Media accreditation in organised events, • Providing services such as orientation, infor- mation, and transportation in the field, • Organising press desks, press centres, and press truck to facilitate the work of media members in times of disaster and crisis are among the Directorate's activities. In addition to supporting the capacity-building programmes and projects of non-governmental organisations operating in the field of media and communication, various professional publications and training are held for communication faculty students and members of the local media. Providing national and international media with daily briefings in Turkish and English, along with instant content on critical issues, helps to keep the public informed correctly. In addition to the online Turkish language course provided by the Directorate for accredited interna- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 699 tional press members in Türkiye, the Guide for In- ternational Media Members in Türkiye (Professio- nal and Daily Life) has been prepared in English to help them with their professional life during their stay in our country. Many workshops, panels, meetings, and events are held for local and national media to ensure that the developments in Türkiye are conveyed accurately to the nation and the world from the first source and to contribute to the development of the media. "Local Media Meetings", which are held periodical- ly to identify the problems of local media and to develop solutions to these problems, "Workshop on the Improvement of the Rights of the Press Members", "Workshop on Internet Media and Journalism", and "Symposium on Reconsidering the History of the Turkish Press", which address the sector's problems, are examples. The Press Advertisement Institution is another institution that serves to strengthen and support the press. The Press Advertisement Institution, es- tablished as a public legal entity in 1961 for the fair distribution of official advertisements to newspa- pers, performs its mediation service regardless of opinion and content. The agency audits 982 newspapers ha- ving the right to pub- lish official announ- cements in Türkiye and advertisements on a regular basis to verify that the right to publish official ad- vertisements is main- tained. By the end of 2021, the vital public sup- port provided to the press by the publication of official announcements and advertisements, es- pecially for local newspapers, amounted to 613 million TL. As a part of its social and economic duties, the Agency continues to provide loans for newspaper businesses, cash support to press asso- ciations, and interest-free loans to those who work the press, either intellectually or physically. The Agency also continues its financial support to the newspapers published by the Greek, Armenian, and Jewish communities, which are considered minorities in our country within the scope of the Lausanne Peace Treaty. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 700 STATE-NATION COMMUNICATION: CIMER T he failure of the unilateral, centralised, and ri- gid bureaucracy of the public administration to fully meet the needs of the changing society and the economic crises brought about new searc- hes, and this search led to a paradigm shift in public administration. This change has brought with it the understanding of "good governance", emphasising participatory, effective, transparent, accountable, and law-abiding practices. The new approach to gover- nance blurs the boundaries between the ruler and the ruled, ingrained in the management concept, and is based on "for the people, with the people" rather than the "for the people, despite the people" administration approach. To achieve good governance in the public sphere, this new understanding has led to the creati- on of essential instruments for improving citizen-sta- te relations and public administration by aiming at the participation of citizens in all aspects of govern- ment, not just voting. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 702 Türkiye was also affected by these global deve- lopments, and this interaction picked up steam with new governments taking office in the wake of the 2000s that sought to overhaul public ad- ministration. The development of the individual and civil society in the context of rights has been considered one of the key components of the de- mocratisation process. For this purpose, first and foremost, a legislative framework has been put in place to ensure that individuals' rights to infor- mation and their effective use are recognised and protected, and public relations mechanisms have been put in place to bridge the gap between the state and its citizens. There was a significant improvement in the level of participation after the 2000s reforms. Trans- parency and accountability in management have created a legal basis thanks to the "Right to In- formation Act No. 4982," passed in 2004 and en- courages participation by making access to in- formation the rule and restriction the exception. In addition, the Ombudsman Institution Law No. 6328, Public Financial Management and Control Law No. 5018, Metropolitan Municipality Law No. 5216, Municipality Law No. 5393, the Presidency's Communication Centre (CİMER) and e-govern- ment practices are notable examples of reform-li- ke regulations. First Central Level Participation Practice in Turkish Public Administration: BIMER (Pri- me Ministry Communication Centre) As the citizen-oriented governance approach has developed, the idea of implementing a central sys- tem across the country has emerged. In this dire- ction, the Prime Ministry Communication Centre (BIMER) was established in 2006 with the 2006/3 Prime Ministry Circular. The participation of the people in the administration, one of the indispen- sable elements of democracy, now started to be provided at the level of the central administration with BIMER. With the regulation titled 2006/3 Prime Ministry Circular "Prime Ministry Communication Centre (BIMER)- Prime Ministry Directly”, citizens sub- mitted their personal applications to make requ- ests, complaints, obtain information and opinion and make suggestions via the internet, letter, fax, ALO 150 phone line, and public relations offices established in institutions. Applications submit- ted through the system were reviewed by experts and forwarded to the relevant public institution, where they received a quick response. Institutions were obliged to respond within 30 days to applica- tions made under the Law on the Right to Petition and within 15 business days to applications made under the Law on the Right to Information. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 703 At the same time, the BIMER system became an electronic platform where urgent demands such as drug supply and treatment are resolved, peop- le in need of urgent help can be contacted quick- ly via telephone, and administrative consultancy services are provided to citizens through the sys- tem on legal and administrative ways to follow. Number of Applications Submitted to BIMER between 2006 and 2018 The system has tended to increase the service qu- ality by being constantly updated with the develo- ping technology in line with the needs of citizens and public personnel. While the number of applications was 129,297 in 2006, when the BIMER system was first establis- hed, this number steadily climbed every year, ex- ceeding 2,500,000 applications in 2018. This system, established 16 years ago, is also a good indication of how far the country has come in terms of public administration in comparison to other countries. Communication Platform between State and Citizen: CİMER (Presidency's Communicati- on Centre) As a result of the referendum held on April 16, 2017, in accordance with the "Law on Amending the Constitution of the Republic of Türkiye" No. 6771, accepted by the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye on January 21, 2017, and promulgated in the Official Gazette on February 11, 2017, the Pre- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 704 sidential System of Government, a new system in Turkish political history, has been officially imp- lemented since July 9, 2018. The structure and functioning of the public administration changed significantly when the parliamentary system was replaced by the Presidential System of Govern- ment. Strong state administration, stability in all areas, and citizen-centeredness are all aims of imple- menting the Presidential System of Government in accordance with the goal of strengthening sta- te-nation relations through the Presidential Sys- tem of Government. As per Presidential Decree no. 14, the Presidency’s Directorate of Communi- cations, which started service under the Presiden- tial Decree no. 1, was charged with taking the ne- cessary measures to rapidly process, assess, and finalise the complaints, requests, views, and sug- gestions of the citizens and ensure that the rele- vant person is responded to quickly, and in order to conclude the applications to obtain informa- tion effectively, quickly and accurately following the Law on the Right to Obtain Information, and with carrying out institutional follow-up and exa- mination activities in order to carry out the works of citizens regarding the activities of public insti- tutions and organisations correctly and to conclu- de them quickly. The Presidency's Communication Centre (Cİ- MER), the continuation of the Prime Ministry Communication Centre (BIMER) system, which was established with the 2006/3 Prime Ministry Circular in order to strengthen the communicati- on between the state and the citizen upon the ins- truction of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, has served under the Public Relations Department of the Directorate of Communications. A daily average of 17,000 applications are sent to CİMER, and citizens can select the relevant ins- titutions in accordance with the content of their application and submit their application directly via "CİMER Automation." CİMER's services are maintained by 100,000 public personnel enrolled in approximately 60,000 administrative units in public institutions and organisations throughout Türkiye. It is a priority to reply to all applications within the legal term. For this reason, the applica- tions that fit within the scope of the right to obtain information are responded to within 15 working days at the latest; and the applications within the scope of the right to petition (request, complaint) are responded to within 30 days at the latest. Number of Applications to CİMER Between 2017-2021 The increase in the awareness of CİMER and confi- dence in the system has resulted in an annual inc- rease in the number of applicants. Based on data from the previous five years, the highest rise in the number of applicants was 80 per cent in 2020. The OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 705 number of citizens who submitted applications inc- reased from 1 million 900 thousand in 2019 to 3.5 million in 2020. In 2021, there was a 5 per cent rise. Distribution by Application Type Between 2017-2021 Forty-three per cent of the applications made in 2021 were "Request" applications, 40 per cent were "Complaint" applications, 8 per cent were "Obtaining Information" applications, 4 per cent were "Denun- ciation" applications, and 5 per cent were "Opinion/ Suggestion" applications. As of 2020, CİMER has also started receiving "Ack- nowledgement" applications, allowing citizens to express their satisfaction with the public personnel and services, thereby increasing the motivation of public personnel serving. Since its establishment, CİMER has been commit- ted to identifying the opinions and suggestions of its citizens, submitting them to higher authorities as reports, and ensuring that these reports are uti- lised efficiently in the policy-making process. The process was additionally facilitated by the "Join the Administration" application, which was put into operation in 2021 on CİMER. Using the "Join the Administration" application, the opinions, sugges- tions, and contributions of citizens from all profes- sions and walks of life can be obtained at the local and national levels in public activities. The currently active "Join the Administration" application can be accessed via the "www.cimer.gov.tr" address, and it is kept up-to-date with the foresight that the issues to be presented to the citizens' opinion may vary ba- sed on the country's agenda. In addition, with the establishment of a call centre under the Public Relations Department of the Di- rectorate of Communications, CİMER provides re- sidents with one-on-one encounters to ensure that the support of the state is always felt. Call centre employees work diligently to inform ci- tizens about the outcome of their applications, pro- vide administrative consultation services regarding the remedies against negative responses, and ensu- re that calls requiring immediate intervention are responded to by contacting the relevant institutions. The system is constantly renewed in terms of both manpower and technological advancements, in ac- cordance with the needs of the time and the public's citizen-oriented perspective. Summary of the development of CİMER since its es- tablishment: • CİMER became a strong communication bridge between the nation and the state. • CİMER became the world's largest public com- munication platform. • A monthly average of 600 thousand CİMER applications were responded to. • The response time was reduced to 14 days. • CİMER reached a quality deemed worthy of the "First Prize" of the Geneva-based International Telecommunication Union, the London-based International Public Relations Association and the Turkish Public Relations Association in 2019 and 2020. OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 706 TÜRKIYE COMMUNICATION MODEL T he 21st century is witnessing a tremendous shift in communication technologies that is producing unprecedented results. The relationship between the state and communicati- on stakeholders is in the process of rapid change in terms of form and scope. While this systemic change made it easier for the public to be infor- med by the state, it subsequently brought along a series of misinformation and problems arising from its associated forms. In the modern day, where hybrid threats are expanding, algorithms aim to confine users to echo chambers. Disinfor- mation and manipulation operations are used to interfere with democratic processes and elections. This rapid technological change and the emergen- ce of new concepts have rendered communication an independent policy area. Good management of this process is possible with the institutionalisa- tion of strategic communication. Türkiye fits into this global context as a country that is both the focus of its region but also of global ties and de- als with communication in a diverse and holistic manner, adapting to its age. In this context, • keeping up with the new media technologies for the delivery of information, • facilitating communication between the state and the nation so that information can be ob- tained from its source, • utilising the available resources efficiently to ensure the correct and reliable dissemination of information, • ensuring the unity of inter-institutional dis- course, are the triggering factors behind Türkiye's com- munication activities. In this context, the Directorate of Communicati- ons is the institution in charge of implementing strategic communication activities, which consti- tute a detailed and targeted communication pra- ctice carried out in accordance with the goals set on behalf of the Republic of Türkiye. Communica- tion activities are carried out as an independent OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 708 policy area by the Directorate of Communications as part of the renewal process that Türkiye laun- ched in various areas following the transition to the Presidential System of Government in 2018. Türkiye's Communication Model: As communication activities become increasingly comprehensive, the Directorate of Communicati- ons ensures that the most up-to-date technology information is quickly integrated into the pro- cess. The Directorate's activities are aimed at de- veloping a "Türkiye Communication Model" and thereby strengthening the Türkiye brand. While preparing the said model, the vision of our Presi- dent Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was taken as a basis. This vision is people-oriented, does not deviate from the path of truth, has a strong sense of justi- ce, and is focused on winning hearts while always striving for more. The concept is founded on five essential principles. These are: • Strategic Communication based on strengthe- ning the Türkiye brand • Prominent Public Diplomacy • Public Relations with concrete steps, serving the people • National and international Media where rela- tions are rebuilt • Discourse Supremacy on a Global Scale Türkiye's Communication Model, which prima- rily aims to strengthen the Türkiye brand, inclu- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 709 des activities carried out within the framework of an inclusive and 360-degree communication strategy. For this reason, a wide range of subjects, from public relations to public diplomacy, from combatting disinformation to crisis management, are included in strategic communication efforts to support Türkiye's institutional and digital com- munication memory, reduce reaction times in are- as of crisis communication, and establish proper communication channels. The main purpose here is to work with a strategy which coordinates ins- tant tracking, detection, and proactive processes, and that keeps the product, database, campaign, publication, partnerships, and project cycle run- ning for 365 days in accordance with the needs of the age. Along the path set out with the principles menti- oned above within the scope of developing Tür- kiye's Communication Model, many projects and events have been carried out, and the infrastru- ctures of many of them have been established. Among the prominent ones, the theoretical and operational dimensions of the model in question were shared with the public through a series of events launched under the title of "Stratcom"; the infrastructure of the term bank for public institu- tions was developed for the unity of discourse; di- gital exhibition centres were established to raise awareness; up-to-date and comprehensive panels and conferences were held to inform the public. In addition to all the projects prepared as part of the Türkiye's Communication Model, campaigns on some fundamental subjects are also carried out by the Directorate. For example: • The Directorate handles the Republic of Tür- kiye's campaign and promotion activities. The Directorate of Communications is in charge of preparing and executing the 100th Anniver- sary Celebrations in compliance with Presi- dential Circular No. 2020/13 dated October 24, 2020. With the aim of "Strengthening the Tür- kiye Brand", macro communication strategy plans are prepared as part of the fundamental principles of the Türkiye’s Communication Model and the 2023 - 2053 - 2071 visions. • In accordance with the Presidential Circular No. 2019/11, dated May 31, 2019, and titled July 15 Democracy and National Unity Day Acti- vities, July 15 Democracy and National Unity Day coordination tasks are carried out by the Directorate of Communications. • According to the Presidential Circular No. 31679, dated December 4, 2021, and titled the Use of Türkiye as a brand promulgated in the Official Gazette, it has been decided that using the word "Türkiye" is the best way to represent and convey the culture, civilisation, and values of the Turkish nation, and thus it has been decided to use the phrase Türkiye on an international level. The Directorate of Communications is in charge of projects and campaigns aimed at increasing global aware- ness of this issue. Combatting Disinformation: In Türkiye, as in the rest of the world, the issue of communication has brought with it the com- bat against fake and incorrect information. In the post-truth era, who accesses information is more significant than what is accurate. In this era of at- tacks on the truth, the problem of disinformation has taken on a new significance. Disinformation, to put it simply, is the deliberate spread of inaccurate information. Disinformation activities, which can be seen in all kinds of com- munication channels, including digital media, are carried out with motives such as increasing the effect of a certain subject in the targeted society, radicalisation, violence, social insecurity, weake- OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 710 ning the democratic structure and causing the tar- geted society to suffer material and moral losses. Since Türkiye is a country targeted by terrorist organisations, it is the subject of disinformation campaigns organised by many local and foreign media outlets and interest groups. In today's world, where the fight against disinfor- mation comes to the fore, Türkiye's efforts in this direction are also coordinated by the Directorate of Communications. A special unit under the Di- rectorate of Communications, authorised by the Presidential Decree no. 14 to act against disinfor- mation, prepares thematic reports on the areas where disinformation is spotted and creates the conditions for the fastest response. As part of Türkiye's combatting disinformation, measures such as expanding control over digital media, punishing the spreading of fake news, and holding digital media accountable for removing fake content have been implemented. In addition, attempts are being undertaken directly commu- nicate the reality of Türkiye to the international public, together with the international broadcasts of TRT and the Anadolu Agency. The Directorate plays a leading role in ensuring the unity of dis- course among public institutions and organisa- tions and increasing cooperation in combatting disinformation. Crisis Communication: The Directorate of Communications is respon- sible for crisis communication. As a country with such a vast area, Türkiye is particularly vulnerable to natural disasters and migration flows. In these problems, disseminating information from offici- al sources to the public is strategically important. According to Presidential Circular No. 14, the Di- rectorate of Communications is in charge of de- termining the strategic communication and crisis management policies of the Republic of Türkiye and ensuring coordination among all public ins- titutions and organisations in the activities to be carried out. Within this context the Directorate of Communi- cations is in charge of • determining the strategic communication po- licies to be implemented during the activities to be carried out in the national and internati- onal arenas by cooperating with the relevant institutions and organisations, when neces- sary, in line with the strategic goals and objec- tives of the state and the interests of the state and the nation, • carrying out strategic communication and crisis management activities in the national and international arenas and cooperating with relevant institutions and organisations in this context, OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 711 • carrying out strategic communication and crisis management activities to achieve the goals and objectives determined by the state in times of crisis, disaster, state of emergency, and the threat of imminent war, mobilisation, and war, • ensuring coordination among all public ins- titutions and organisations within its area of responsibility. While the Directorate of Communications prepa- res the Civil Preparedness Strategic Communica- tion Plan, it also acts as a stakeholder institution in Türkiye's important disaster plans such as the National Crisis Management Plan, Türkiye Nati- onal Disaster Response Plan, Türkiye Disaster Risk Reduction Plan, Chemical Defence Strategy Document and Action Plan, and Hybrid Threat Response Strategy Plan. 712 CONTRIBUTING INSTITUTIONS CONTRIBUTING INSTITUTIONS History Outline of Turkish History From the Beginning to the Republic Turkish Historical Society History of the Republic Atatürk Research Center Constitution, Polity and Political Structure Constitution Grand National Assembly of Türkiye Legislative Power Grand National Assembly of Türkiye Executive Power Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye The Judiciary Ministry of Justice Social Life Religious and Cultural Life Presidency of Religious Affairs Important Days (Religious and National Holidays) Ministry of Family and Social Services Woman and Society Ministry of Family and Social Services Social Services and Social Assistance Ministry of Family and Social Services Migration and Asylum-Seekers Presidency of Migration and Management Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organizations General Directorate of Civil Society Relations Turkish Foreign Policy and Current Affairs Türkiye's Enterprising and Humanitarian Policy Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Events of 1915 That Formed A Millennium of History Turkish Historical Society Eastern Mediterranean Ministry of Foreign Affairs Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs Fight against Terrorism Ministry of National Defense July 15 Coup Attempt Ministry of Interior Defense and Security Ministry of National Defense Humanitarian Aid Turkish Crescent - Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (AFAD) Development Cooperation Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TİKA) Our Citizens Living Abroad and Related Communities Presidency for Turks Abroad and Related Communities (YTB)-Ministry of Foreign Affairs Tourism Türkiye: A Country of Tourism Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency (TGA) Historical Places, Tourism and Culture Routes in Türkiye Türkiye on UNESCO World Heritage List Tourism Types 713 CONTRIBUTING INSTITUTIONS Cultural Life Literature Fine Arts Traditional Arts Architectural Cultural Heritage in Türkiye Music Opera and Ballet Theatre Cinema Turkish TV Series Festivals Fairs Museology Publishing and Libraries Ministry of Culture and Tourism Nation's Library of the Presidency Presidency's Nation's Library Turkish Cuisine Turkish Culinary Heritage Prominent Delicacies in the Turkish Cuisine Gastronomy Cities of UNESCO Creative Cities Network Studies on the Cultural Heritage of Turkish Cuisine Türkiye Tourism Promotion and Development Agency (TGA) Industry, Science and Technology Globalising Turkish Industry Ministry of Industry and Technology Developments in R&D The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK) Sector-Based Industry Ministry of Industry and Technology Developments in Defence Industry Ministry of Industry and Technology Developments in Aviation Technologies Ministry of Industry and Technology Advancements in Space Technologies Turkish Space Agency (TUSAŞ) Developments in the Field of Energy Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources Developments in Communications Sector Information Technologies and Communication Authority (BTK) Economy World Economy and Türkiye Ministry of Trade Multilateral and Regional Relations Ministry of Industry and Technology Investment Opportunities and Incentives in Türkiye Ministry of Treasury and Finance EnvIronment, UrbanIsatIon and ClImate Change International Cooperation in Combating Climate Change and Türkiye's Adaptation Strategies Türkiye’s Combat Against Climate Change Nation's Gardens Project Transition to Zero Waste and Circular Economy Policy in Türkiye Protected Areas and Natural Heritage Türkiye's Urban Transformation Mobilization Social Housing Mobilization in Türkiye: TOKİ and the Construction of One Million Houses Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change Renewable Energy Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources 714 Healthcare Community Health Policies Private Healthcare Infrastructure International Evacuation and Aid During the Pandemic Ministry of Health Transportation and Important Projects Developments in Transportation A Ground-Breaking Project in World Tunnelling: The Eurasia Tunnel Marmaray Provides Uninterrupted Rail Transport Between the Continents of Asia and Europe Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge and Northern Marmara Highway 1915 Çanakkale Bridge and Malkara-Çanakkale Highway İstanbul Airport Project Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure Education Turkish National Education System Ministry of National Education Educational Institutions of Türkiye Maarif Foundation Maarif Foundation Higher Education System in Türkiye Council of Higher Education (YÖK) Education Abroad Ministry of National Education Mobility of International Students Presidency for Turks Abroad and Related Communities (YTB) Youth and Sports Youth Public Services for Youth Sports Diplomacy: International Relations and International Organizations Sports Services Achievements in the International Sports Community Ministry of Youth and Sports Employment and Social Policies Individual and Collective Labour Law in Employment Social Partners Social Security System and Its Structure Ministry of Labour and Social Security Communication and Media Media Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTUK), Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), Presidency's Directorate of Communications State-Nation Communication: CiMER Presidency's Directorate of Communications Türkiye Communication Model Presidency's Directorate of Communications CONTRIBUTING INSTITUTIONS 715 INDEX A Abolition of the Sultanate 29 Armistice Treaty of Mudros 27 Associations for Defence of National Rights 28 B Basin 28 Berlin 127, 224, 306, 324, 653 British 139, 252, 267, 296, 593, 655 Bulent Ulusu 32 C Çanakkale 6, 10, 28, 210, 213, 225, 236, 240, 246, 247, 252, 316, 317, 318, 330, 333, 397, 439, 451, 550, 561, 564, 582, 583, 586, 587 Celal Bayar 30 Chronic Disease 548 Committee of Inquest 31 Committee of Representation 28 Constitutional Court 33, 41, 46, 54, 59, 62, 63 Council of Judges and Prosecutors 46, 59, 62 Council of State 59, 62, 63 Court of Accounts 59, 63 Court of Cassation 59, 61, 62, 63 Court of Jurisdictional Disputes 59, 61 Cyprus 4, 8, 32, 117, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 188, 189, 415, 512, 557 D Democratic Left Party 33 Democratic Party 30 Democratic Türkiye Party 33 Deniz Baykal 33 Directorate General of Migration Management 103, 713 Divriği 213, 214, 215 E Eastern Anatolia 28, 93, 127, 128, 219, 257, 282, 354, 400, 439 ECHR 60 ECtHR 60 Elazığ 290, 521, 532, 533 Entente Powers 27, 28 Erdal İnönü 33 Ereğli 160 Ergani Erzurum 28, 128, 256, 257, 269, 275, 292, 330, 439, 443, Erzurum Congress 28 Eskişehir 24, 29, 234, 240, 297, 317, 401, 493, 562 Eternal Chief 30 F First Nationalist Front government 31 French 25, 29, 221, 241, 252, 270, 661, 663 Fuat Köprülü 30 G General Assembly 28 Geographical Restriction 103 Grand National Assembly of Türkiye 4, 28, 378 Greece 25, 101, 127, 136, 139, 140, 141, 142, 157, 158, INDEX 716 INDEX H Haydarpasa Train Station 28 Hikmet Bayur 30 Hikmet Çetin 33 Homeland Front 31 Human Trafficking 102 I - I International Protection 101, 102, 103, 104 Irregular Migration 99, 100, 101, 118, 119, 145, 159, 389 Istanbul 2, 6, 10, 20, 24, 28, 33, 61, 78, 120, 121, 122, 127, 128, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 159, 169, 209, 213, 225, 228 , 229, 233, 234, 236, 239, 240, 241, 247, 250, 254, 256, 257, 262, 264, 270, 271, 283, 288, 289, 290, 292, 295, 296, 297, 299 , 300, 301, 302, 308, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 325, 329, 330, 332, 333, 335, 339, 341, 342, 354, 359, 363, 368, 376, 377, 384 , 386, 401, 404, 405, 407, 411, 439, 440, 447, 494, 495, 504, 526, 527, 532, 534, 535, 550, 561, 562, 564, 565, 566, 569, 573 , 576, 577, 579, 580, 583, 589, 592, 593, 611, 621, 640, 641, 653, 654, 655, 658, 663, 665, 666, 696, 713, 715, 716, 717 Italy 25, 136, 157, 158, 160, 171, 180, 209, 210, 249, 255, 266, 288, 289, 316, 320, 321, 324, 398, 400, 405, 409, 539, 581, 660 , 662, 666, 667, 668 J Japan 171, 320, 321, 332, 468, 539, 668 Judiciary 4, 7, 39, 59, 60 K Kenan Evren 32, 33 Konya 21, 213, 218, 234, 235, 236, 240, 255, 282, 290, 318, 319, 320, 330, 378, 401, 404, 486, 488, 509, 525, 526, 527, 532, 534 , 550, 562, 640 Lake Van 504 Law of Providing Land to Farmers 30 Legal aid 64 Lightning Armies Group Command 28 M Malatya 214, 221, 521, 533 Maraş 28, 29, 188, 374 Mediation 64, 121, 674 Mesut Yılmaz 33 Migration 4, 7, 67, 86, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 507, 713 Ministry of Justice 4, 64, 629 Murat Karayalçın 33 Mustafa Kemal Pasha 28 National Chief 30 National Pact 28 National Security Council 32 Nationalists Forces (Kuvayi Milliye) 28 Non-Refoulement 103 O Obesity 553 Ottoman Bank 128 Ottoman Empire 24, 25, 27, 73, 75, 107, 125, 127, 128, 129, 290 P Pandemic 186, 301, 325, 405, 664, 714 Poland 24, 100, 320, 321, 324, 402, 657, 660, 661 Quartet 31 R Real Estate and Orphans Bank Reconciliation 64, 533, 616, 683 Refik Koraltan 30 Refugee 713 Reliance Party 31 Rome 20, 208, 210, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 228, 234, 235, 238, 239, 240, 242, 245, 247, 249, 281, 324, 330, 353 S - S Sadi Irmak 31 Samsun 28, 78, 235, 247, 290, 296, 386, 397, 486, 493, Secondary Protection 102 SEGBIS 65 Sivas 28, 190, 213, 214, 215, 292, 493, 534, 562 Sivas Congress 28 Social Democrat 33 State Security Courts 31, 44 Süleyman Demirel 31, 33 Supreme Election Council 59, 63 T Tansu Çiller 33 Teleradiology 551 Temporary Protection 103 Tests and Inactivated Vaccine True Path Party 33 Turgut Özal 32, 33, 348, 415 Türkiye İş Bankası 715 717 INDEX U Union of Turkish Bar Associations 59, 63 United Nations 89, 93, 95, 107, 158, 169, 171, 191, 213, 465, 479, 480, 485, 488, 496, 500, 529, 620, 639, 717 Urfa 28, 29, 237 Uşak 330, 404 UYAP 65 V Vaccine 387, 548, 714 Victim 64, 126 Volunteering 629, 630, 633, 640 WeAreVolunteers Platform 630 Workers’ Party of Türkiye 31 World War 25, 27, 30, 125, 128, 129, 139, 209, 252, 284, 305, 465, 466, 695, 717 World War II 30, 139, 305, 465, 717 Y Year of Volunteering Strategy Document 629 Youth Volunteering 629 Yugoslavia 300 OTHER PUBLIC SERVICES 718 www.iletisim.gov.tr/turkce/yayinlarimiz ISBN:978-625-7377-28-7